known before, abounding in vast new problems and requiring the whole time and energy of those devoted to them. The new charity, which is also a science, insists that we have no right to give doles to the poor unless personally or by agencies; to that end we follow each case to see that good and not harm is caused thereby. Just so it is not enough to provide leisure by stipends and fellowships even for the best, and this may be even positively injurious unless wre also accept the responsibil- ity of laborious and protracted individual help. We must ex- haust all our own resources of suggestion and references to sources, devise new apparatus, impart all our best thoughts with no reserves, criticize, encourage, ceaselessly confer, act- ively forage for material to feed every new development of interest, wisely appeal to emulation, renounce for all such stu- dents every claim of priority, be content to see our choicest ideas appropriated without thanks or even without conscious- ness that they came from us, renounce all thought of self, and be Aquarii that water and, if need be, become very dung to fer- tilize the rich soil whence talent burgeons. Half the battle, per- haps, is the selection of topics that will not abort, that are special enough to bring all powers and resources to a sharp focus, but writh a broad background of wider interest to insure gen- eral culture-effects quite apart from participate results in a way not always wholly directed toward original contributions of knowledge, which the older investigator may have wholly in view. The theme must, if possible, have a deep root of per- sonal zest, perhaps of long but half-unconscious incubation. The novice must keep up constant and intense mentation and not lapse to a mere counter, tabulator, collector of slides or quotations, nor skirt too closely every indentation of the coast- line of fact, but launch out a little from the shore. He must not be a famulus, to fetch and carry for his professor's larger work, but his epistle known and read.
A real new result, achieved and published as it should be very promptly, often marks an epoch in the life of a young student. Success is like the first taste of blood to a young tiger. The sense of having contributed ever so tiny a stone to the temple of learning is the beginning of a new intellectual life, and marks a kind of majority. It brings a sense of being an authority and not an echo, and teaches what mental free- 55* THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE tlom really means. It harks back to the feeling of pristine newness in the youth of the world, and makes the luxury of merely knowing pale before the joy of doing. The thesis is a kind of royal accolade when the Alma Mater's salute is, " Stand erect on your feet and look about you through your own eyes and henceforth light your own way by independent knowl- edge. " Education that does not end in some such experience is incomplete, for it makes the master and not the servant of knowledge, marks the advent of a new citizen in the world of the higher culture, all the more docile in all other respects be- cause in some ever so small matter he oan teach all men and be taught by none. This step is the close of the last stage of psychic adolescence, and manhood is now fully achieved. The finished Ephebos is not an alien or even a guest, but hence- forth a member of the university invisible, not made with hands.
Thus the fellowship should not interfere with the freest working of the law of natural selection between universities. Each graduate student should ponder and compare with care to find where he can really do best, and there he should be found. The doctorate should be the highest intellectual honor the older can confer upon the younger generation of scholars, and the aspiration of the university should be to ad- vance the kingdom of man. The teacher should so marshal his pupils that he learns far more from them collectively than he can ever hope to teach them, and so that in the group where their knowledge is well pooled they will owe more to each other than to his lectures or demonstrations. The spirit of research blows where it listeth, and rules and overorganiza- tion are fatal to it. It can never be administered or controlled from without. Very few professors indeed can either inspire or conduct successful research, and failures here are more or less inevitable. Of this the brevet who conducts platoons of students through text-books can know nothing. Pedants of method can never know how the world looks from the frontiers of human knowledge, and mere scholarship is selfish to the core.1 To degrade the noble word investigation, to mean doing 1 All this is fully described in my Confessions of a Psychologist, Ped. Sem., March, 1901, and What is Research in a University Sense and How may it Best be Promoted? Address at the Ass'n of Am. Universities, Ped. Sem., March, INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 559 over what has been done a thousand times, is really only a wasteful new curriculization of second-hand knowledge, is holding old forts and not conducting offensive and defensive warfare in new fields. The way to treat new protocols is never laid down in logic. The Rubicon is crossed only when a divi- ning mind has thought the data all out, till they grow hot in the process, and are then forged into a new unity. Many gather at the foot of the mount, some ascend a little way, but only a chosen few can scale the summit above the clouds and bring down the tables of the law for those who wait below. There is a veritable aristocracy of mind above the peddling knowledge of the schools, which democracy can never oblit- erate and which examination can not test. Mere knowledge is superficial and even vulgar, and it often makes conceited and unpractical, for great learning in little minds brings psychic and moral wreckage, and is sometimes inversely as creative- ness. But, the best is also the hardest to maintain. The ideal was " the more and better books, apparatus, collections, and teachers, and the fewer but more promising the students, the better the work and the greater the highest service to the com- munity." Numbers mean mechanism, dealing with masses instead of individuals, and the withdrawal of the professor from close personal intercourse. The college-dominated high school will, in the end, work out its needed autonomy, but the uni- versitized college is dragging its anchor, has lost its chart and compass, and is at the mercy of the elements. In the mad race for wealth and numbers, the university, the promise of which was the dawn of the brightest hope in all the history of our republic, is being progressively mergered as a depart- mental annex of the great colleges, and the apex of our na- tional system of education is still in Germany. Its primacy, the absolute freedom of thought and investigations, which is its life, is unrecognized and imperiled by overorganization; standards of quality are subordinated to those of quantity, and the interests of the few score professors and the few hundred picked and ripened adolescents who could and would live solely for research and the advancement of the kingdom of man and of truth in the world are too often lost in the growing academic crowds. Our largest institutions are already both too populous and too rich for their highest interests, and 560 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE have lately acquired wealth faster than they have learned how to use it. With best advantages, the sense for individual- ity of students, even in the bestowal of the highest degrees, is lost, and the need of place-hunting for the learned prole- tariat already swarming at the exits of some departments, has had to be met by teachers' bureaus and experts for placing their own young doctors in a market small at best, but cheap- ened by competition of the half-competent with the best. There are professions and lines of research that have been paralyzed by endowments, creative talents that are sterilized by the luxury of too much knowledge, departments that have lost vigor and life by architectural installations and even by too much manufactured apparatus, and that have grown con- fused amidst a too copious literature and too insistent library opportunities, because resolute neglect of everything that is only second best is the scholar's only safety. But even despite all these disheartening tendencies, there is a precious remnant of the elect, and we are not left entirely to the last resource against pessimism that God and the destiny of America will bring us through the darkest hour all right.
CHAPTER XVII ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION I. Differences of the sexes in strength, mortality, brain, senses, agility, mental traits, crime, disposition, variability, conservation, progressive sexual diver- gence. II. Medical and biological views in other lands and in this country since Dr. E. H. Clarke. III. Health and its tests — Danger of overdrawing reserves. IV. Marriage of educated women — Latest statistics or nubility rates of male and female colleges — Comparisons and lessons. V. Fecundity in earlier generations in America — Sterility in this and other countries, and its causes and stages — Best age for parenthood in mother and in father — Effects of over- nutrition and mental strain — Statistics of children of graduates of girls' col- leges compared with rate of reproduction of male graduates — Dangers of late marriages and of only children — Fertility as a test of civilization — Individua- tion versus genesis — Dominance of the instinct for marriage and motherhood in normal women and substitutes provided for it. VI. Education — New Eng- lish opinions — Coeducation of various degrees — Its advantages and dangers for both boys and girls — The age of eighteen — Changes to the dollish, disap- pointed, and devotee type — Dangers of aping man-made education and of com- placency— Arrest in the first stages of a movement just begun — Training for spinsterhood and self-support versus for maternity — Hints and general out- lines of a higher education for girls based on their nature and needs and not on convention or the demands of feminists — Branches of such a curriculum — Methods — Hygiene.
I. The Biological and Anthropological Standpoint. — Our modern knowledge of woman represents her as having char- acteristic differences from man in every organ and tissue, as conservative in body and mind, fulfilling the function of see- ing to it that no acquired good be lost to mankind, as anabolic rather than katabolic, or disposed to assimilate or digest on a higher plane, as normally representing childhood and youth in the full meridian of its glory in all her dimensions and nature so that she is at the top of the human curve from which the higher super-man of the future is to evolve, while man is phylogenetically by comparison a trifle senile, if not decadent. Her sympathetic and ganglionic system is relatively to* the cerebro-spinal more dominant. Her whole soul, conscious and 562 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE unconscious, is best conceived as a magnificent organ of hered- ity, and to its laws all her psychic activities, if unperverted, are true. She is by nature more typical and a better repre- sentative of the race and less prone to specialization. Her peculiar organs, while constituting a far larger proportion of her body than those of man, are hidden and their psychic reverberations are dim, less localized, more all-pervasive. She works by intuition and feeling; fear, anger, pity, love, and most of the emotions have a wider range and greater inten- sity. If she abandons her natural naivete and takes up the burden of guiding and accounting for her life by conscious- ness, she is likely to lose more than she gains, according to the old saw that she who deliberates is lost. Secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sex qualities are developed far beyond her ken or that of science, in a way that the latter is only beginning to glimpse. While she needs tension that only the most ad- vanced modern psychology sees to be sexual at root, we shall never know the true key to her nature until we understand how the nest and the cradle are larger wombs; the home, a larger nest; the tribe, state, church, and school, larger homes and irradiations from it. Biological psychology already dreams of a new philosophy of sex which places the wife and mother at the heart of a new world and makes her the object of a new religion and almost of a new worship, that will give her reverent exemption from sex competition and reconsecrate her to the higher responsibilities of the human race, into the past and future of which the roots of her being penetrate; where the blind worship of mere mental illumina- tion has no place; and where her real superiority to man will have free course and be glorified and the ideals of the old matriarchates again find embodiment in fit and due degree. Patrick 1 has summarized the salient points of difference between men and women as follows: The latter are shorter and lighter save for a brief period at about thirteen, as we have shown in Chapter I. Her adult height to that of man is as about 16 to 17, and her weight as 9 to 10. Her form is rounder, she has more fat, more water, less muscle; her dyna- 1The Psychology of Woman. Pop. Sci. Mo., June, 1895. See also Ellis: Man and Woman. London, p. 409.
ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION mometer strength foots up about two-thirds that of man; her trunk is relatively slightly longer; the pelvic bend makes her a little less erect; the head is less upright, and her gait slightly less steady; her plantar arch is flatter; her forefinger is rela- tively longer than the other three; the thyroid larger; the lung capacity relatively less; the blood has less red corpuscles; her bones a little less specific gravity; she is more anemic, and her pulse is faster. In the United States about 105 boys are born to loo girls, but through life the male death-rate is higher, so that in nearly every land, after the first year or two, there are more females than males. She is more liable to whooping- cough, scarlet fever, phthisis, diphtheria, but resists diseases best and dies less often than man at nearly every age. Ballod 1 shows that the average increased duration of life in the last decennium is for women and not for men, and that large cities and factories tend to shorten average male longevity. Hegar (Geschlechtstrieb) concludes that before forty, married, and after forty, unmarried, women are more liable to die, but that married outlive unmarried men. He is more prone than she to rheumatism, cancer, brain troubles, sudden death from internal or external causes, can less survive severe surgical operations and grows old more rapidly; his hair is gray earlier and he is more prone to loss of sight, hearing, memory, senile irritability, to deformities and anoma- lies, is less hardy and less resembles children. Woman's skull is smaller, especially at the base, but large in circumference at the crown, which is flatter and more angular; her forehead is more vertical; the glabella and superorbital ridges are less, as are the occipital and mastoid prominences and the parietal prominence; her face is smaller and a little lower, and she is slightly more prognathic. Her absolute brain weight to that of man is about as 9 to 10, but her smaller size makes her brain about equal, if not heavier, in weight. The lower cen- ters are larger in women, and in nearly all these respects women differ less among themselves than do men. Martin and Clouston found the female brain slightly better irrigated by blood, especially in the occipital regions, although the num- ber of its corpuscles as compared to those of man was as 9 1 Die mittlere Lebensdaur in Stadt u. Land. Leipzig, 1897.
564 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE to 10. The anterior regions of the brain were best supplied in man. The specific gravity of the gray matter of all parts of the brain was less in women, but in the white matter there was no difference. The female brain has more bilateral sym- metry, i. e., its right and left hemispheres are more alike. In all save the occipital regions the male has more secondary gyri and probably the convolutions are deeper. In most forms of lunacy the male brain is most wasted at death, and four men to one woman die of general paralysis between thirty and fifty. Women are more often insane, but men most often die of in- sanity, while women who die in lunatic asylums more often die of body diseases. Mental stimulus, according to Warner, more readily lowers their general nutrition. Mobius,1 on the other hand, who sees danger in the emancipation movement of the feminists, thinks that the fact that they have accom- plished so little in the world of art and science is not due to subjection but to inferiority. He lays stress on Riidinger's re- sults, viz., that in infants the convolutions about the Sylvian fissures are simpler, with fewer bends, that the island of Keil is smaller, less convex, and simpler, as is the third frontal gyrus, and the whole parietal lobe is inferior in females at all ages to that of men, these being the portions most closely connect- ed with mentation. The sexes have the same convolutions, but of different sizes, and the same powers, but in differing degrees.
Women seem slightly more obtuse in sight, touch, and hearing, and less sensitive to pain. Concerning taste discrim- inations, investigators differ. Ellis and Galton conclude that she has less sensibility but more affectibility and nervous irrita- bility. Only about four-tenths of one per cent of women are color blind as against three and a half per cent of men. In visual discriminations in the indirect field of vision, she excels, indicating that the retinal function is less focused in the fovea. With her eyes fixed straight ahead on the streets she observes persons and things farther right and left than man can do. Bryan found that in rapid movements, she excelled from five to sixteen, except at about thirteen, while in precision boys slightly excel. Gilbert concludes that boys tap fastest at every 1 Ueber den physiolog. Schwachsinn des Weibes. Fifth ed. Halle, 1903.
ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 565 •age, and that reaction time is less at all ages for boys. Ellis concludes that in dexterity, as shown in cotton spinning, woolen weaving, cigar and cigarette making, and other fine work, man excels where opportunity and numbers are equal. In quick reading, where the sense of a paragraph is to be grasped in minimal time and with equal knowledge of the subject, woman excels in quick apprehension of wholes. Women go in flocks, and in social matters are less prone to stand out with salient individuality. They are more emo- tional, altruistic, intuitive, less judicial, and less able to make disinterested and impersonal judgment. Girls are most likely to know their environment, w7hile the boys oftenest show surprising gaps in knowledge of what is right about them and unexpected acquaintance with something afar, special or un- usual.
Miss Thompson l found from laboratory tests that men ex- cel women in strength, rapidity, and in rate of fatigue, and slightly in accuracy, but the latter are superior in new motor combinations; that men have the lower sensory threshold for light, and women for distinguishing two points on the skin, in sweet, salt, sour, and bitter taste, in smell, color, and pain by pressure, and in discriminative pitch and color. Men excel in distinguishing lifted weights, sweet, sour, and bitter. Women excel in memory. This writer becomes feministic in crediting abstract deductions and taking Lourbet's jesting re- mark that the smaller and more agile male cell might better represent the female and the larger ovum the male, seriously, and defies Weismannism by ascribing sexual differences of type of mental action to the differences of the influences that surround the sexes in early years.
Her thought is more concrete and individual and she is more prone to associations in space, and man in time. Men are more prone to bring things under general rules and with regard to symmetry. Her logical thought is slower, but her associations quicker than those of man, she is less troubled by inconsistencies, and has less patience with the analysis in- volved in science and invention.
Of 483,517 patents recorded in Washington up to October, 1 The Mental Traits of Sex. Chicago Univ. Press, 1903.
566 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE 1892, 3,458 were by women. In education men have made most of the reforms, while recent developments show that they can excel even in dressmaking and cooking. Woman has rapid tact in extricating herself from difficulties; girls speak quicker than boys; old women are likely to be talkative, old men glum; men progress most after graduation; women are very prone to lose accomplishments and special culture and training, are more punctual in school and college, more reg- ular in attendance, and in higher grades have the best marks, but vary less from the average; they excel in mental repro- duction rather than in production; are superior in arts of con- versation, more conservative and less radical; their vaso- motor system is more excitable; they are more emotional, blush and cry easier; are more often hypnotized; quicker to take suggestions; have most sympathy, pity, charity, gener- osity, and superstitions. Male crime to female is as 6 to i, woman exceeding only in poisoning, domestic theft, and in- fanticide. She is about as superior to man in altruism as she is behind him in truth-telling, being more prone to ruse and deception. She is more credulous and less skeptical, more prone to fear and timidity, and has greater fidelity, dependence, reverence, and devotion. She dresses for adornment rather than use. In savage and civilized life, her body is more often mutilated and she is more primitive. Her hair is long; she is more prone to wear ornaments which show wealth rather than to dress solely for protection or concealment; is still fond of feathers, skin, and fur, flowing garments, and partial exposure of person, so that she betrays rank and wealth more often than men. She still pinches her waist and feet; uses pins, powders, and perfumes, neck ornaments, beads, overshoes, and sometimes shoes that are not rights and lefts; is more subject to fashion; her work is far less specialized than that of man and less reduced to mechanism or machinery. Man is best adapted to the present; woman is more rooted in the past and the future, closer to the race and a more ge- neric past. Thus again, in very many of the above traits, woman is far nearer childhood than man, and therefore in mind and body more prophetic of the future as well as remi- niscent of the past.
ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 567 Professor Pearson l condemns as a superstition the current idea of the greater variability of man than of woman. He first eliminates everything characteristic of sex and all that is pathological, and focuses on size alone. Even color blindness, which is characteristic of sex, he sets aside. By so doing and measuring the limited number of persons, he finds slightly more variation in females than in males and so excoriates the common belief that the reverse is true. That his method is profoundly mistaken, if it does not indeed prove the contrary, will, I think, be plain to all biologists. Some have thought that every variation from the parental type was slightly abnormal. Certainly, normal and pathological shade into each other by imper- ceptible degrees, and Professor Pearson merely eliminates those classes of facts on which the whole question rests. As Ellis 2 well says, the real question of organic variational tendencies is untouched. If in size woman is more variable, it may be due to her less severe struggle for existence, or to the fact that male children being larger make greater demands on the mother and, therefore, have harder conditions to surmount. The biometric method, which Pearson so ably repre- sents, miscarries h^re because the preliminary basis in the selection of facts is fundamentally wrong.