It may seem that this characteristic of women's neuro-muscular energy is an unmitigated disadvantage, but this is by no means the case. Not only is it associated with the greater readiness of women, but it is an extremely valuable safeguard. Men are able to undergo far more prolonged and intense exertion than women, but they purchase this capacity at a price; the resulting collapse, when it comes, is more extreme and more difficult to recover from. Women yield to the first strain, but for that very reason they quickly recover. Energetic women, who are able to 1 F. Galton, " Mental Fatigue," Journal Anthrop. Institute % 1889, 2 Photographic News, Feb. 17th, 1893.
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disregard physiological warnings, naturally suffer from more serious collapse, as men would. As a rule, their affectability protects women from the serious excesses of work or of play to which men are liable. The frequency and comparative triviality of nervous disorders in women, their much greater seriousness and fatality in men, largely finds its explanation here That women are more often attacked by most zymotic diseases than men, but more rarely die from them, seems to be a fact belonging to the same group.
The neuro-muscular exhaustibility of women is no doubt in some measure due to the fact — which we encountered when considering "Metabolism" — that the blood of women is more watery than that of men; in women, at all events as women exist to-day, a certain slight degree of anaemia may be regarded as physiological. 1 But anaemia increases affectability; in an anaemic woman a very slight stimulus or exertion produces too strong a reaction; to live healthily she must live at a very low and slow rate of tension.
As Dr. Fox well, pointing out how dangerous sudden transi- tory toil is for the anaemic, remarks: — "Continuous toil, mental or physical, is an impossibility to the anaemic patient. But anaemic people who are up and about and trying to do their work in the world, have a certain standard of speed and persistence set them by the healthy people they see around them. This standard they try to attain; they therefore start off with the vigour of a healthy person, but their feeble muscle or nerve cells soon pull them up and they have to rest, starting off again in a few minutes with more than normal vigour, to make up for lost time, but only the sooner to be rearrested by helpless debility. Their work is therefore done in jerks, the toil during the jerk being far beyond their strength. They might perhaps do just as much in the aggregate without injury to themselves if they worked from beginning to end at a 1 See Dr. Stephen Mackenzie's Lettsomian Lectures on Anaemia, Brit, Med. Journal^ 1 89 1, vol. i., for evidence showing that the physical characteristics of the anaemic are an exaggeration of those of women generally.
Google THE AFFECTABILITY OF WOMEN. 313 steady, slow rate commensurate with their strength; but the forces of imitation and emulation are too strong for them, and thejr persist in exhibitions of normal energy with subnormal bodies. But even had they perfect control of themselves, how can they avoid sudden efforts of high pressure? The anaemic school-girl standing up in class has to concentrate her brain power to answer with costly speed the question rapidly passed down from one to another, or has to work sums for marks against time. The house-maid is bound to run upstairs quickly to answer her mistress's bell, to carry trays full of food, and scuttles full of coaL This quickness of answer, these trays and scuttles have been formed for healthy persons; to them they would act but as a sturdy developmental stimulus, but to the anaemic they become a breathless and exhausting labour. If anaemics held sway over toil there would be no quickness of performance, no strenuous effort allowed. Luckily for the world's progress, but unluckily for them, they have to play a very subordinate part on life's stage, and to be content with things as they find them." (A. Foxwell, " In^leby Lectures on Condition of the Vascular System in Anaemic Debility," Brit. Med. Journal, 16th April 1892.)
The question still remains how far the affectability of women is natural and organic, how far it is the mere accidental result of external circumstances. Is the greater emotionality of women a permanent and ineradicable fact? There can be no doubt that to a very large extent emotionality may be modified. Hypnotic phenomena, perhaps as common in men as in women among savages, are rare among civilised men. The men of to-day are not as emotional as the men of the thirteenth century; the modern English gentle- man does not talk and behave like the English gentle- men who killed Thomas k Beckett The woman of to-day, again, is less emotional than her great-grand- mother in the last century; she is not subject to vapours and swoons on trivial occasions to any- thing like the same extent The mere fact of the immense difference on the whole which exists as regards emotionality between women of different social classes (and which, as we have seen, is removed when the restraint of sanity is removed), suggests that emotion, in its coarser manifestations at all Google 314 MAN AND WOMAN.
events, is to an immense degree educable. The attention that is now, fortunately, beginning to be given to the physical culture of women will un- doubtedly tend to strengthen and develop the neuro-muscular system. Just as we have sure reason to believe that sensibility may by training be increased, so there is still greater reason to believe that affectability may by training be decreased.
That there is, however, a limit to this sexual equalisation of affectability remains extremely prob- able. The comparatively larger extent of the sexual sphere in women and of the visceral regions generally, — for in women at puberty, as Dr. Campbell puts it, a new keyboard and a fresh series of pipes are added to the instrument, — the physiological tendency to anaemia, and the existence of inevitable periodicity of function in women, conspire to furnish a broader basis for the play of emotion which no change in environment or habit could remove. Affectability in women may be reduced to finer and more delicate shades; it can scarcely be brought to the male standard.
This result is by no means to be regretted. We have seen that the affectability of women ensures to them certain solid advantages, and assists to safeguard them against evils from which men are specially prone to suffer. Beyond this, if men and women were more on the same level as regards emotionality, they would lose very much of their power to help one another. They would certainly, also, lose very greatly their power to charm one another. The man of facile emotions makes little impression on a woman; the woman who is lacking in emotionality leaves a man cold. As long as this is so we may be perfectly sure that — even if the greater affectability of women had a less firm organic basis — men and women will never be equal in emotionality.
Google THE AFFECTABILITY OF WOMEN. 315 The affectability of women exposes them, as I have had occasion to point out, to very diabolical mani- festations. It is also the source of very much of what is most angelic in women — their impulses of tender- ness, their compassion, their moods of divine child- hood. Poets have racked their brains to express and to account for this mixture of heaven and hell. We see that the key is really a very simple one; both the heaven and hell of women are but aspects of the same physiological affectability. Seeing this, we may see, too, that those worthy persons who are anxious to cut off the devil's tail might find, if they succeeded, that they had also shorn the angel of her wings. The emotionality of women, within certain limits, must decrease; there are those who will find consolations in the gradual character of that decrease.
Google CHAPTER XIV.
THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE.
THE INDUSTRIES AROSE IN WOMEN'S HANDS, THE ARTS IN MEN'S — POTTERY — TATTOOING — PAINTING SCULPTURE — MUSIC — WHY WOMEN HAYE FAILED IN MUSIC — METAPHYSICS — MYSTICISM — POETRY — FICTION — WHY WOMEN HAVE SUCCEEDED IN FICTION — THE SUPREM- ACY OF WOMEN IN ACTING — THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE GENERALLY IS MORE MARKED IN MEN — THE CAUSES OF THIS.
Primitive women have in their hands all the industries, and, in consequence, the rudiments of most of the arts. But when we get beyond the rudiments the position begins to change, and when we reach fully differentiated arts, even among savages, we find that they are almost exclusively in the hands of men.
The making of pottery is an industry which develops almost insensibly into an art. In nearly every part of the world pottery has at the outset been entirely, or almost entirely, in the hands of women, and so long as it remained in their hands the potter's industry has usually retained a severely practical character. It is sufficient to quote the evi- dence of one observer who possessed a peculiarly intimate acquaintance with the lowest stages of primitive culture. Miklucho-Macleay, speaking of Papuan art in North-east Guinea, remarks: — " I have been struck by the absolute absence of ornament on Google THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE. 317 the pottery, the clay easily lending itself to all sorts of ornamentation; this lack of ornament is due to the fact that the manufacture of pottery is exclusively confided to women, who are not usually very artistic by nature. I have found confirmation of this ancient and just observation even among Papuan women. I am able to state that I have never seen the slightest ornament invented or executed by a woman. During a visit to the island of Bibi-Bibi, where pottery is manufactured for all the neighbouring villages, when observing a dozen women and young girls fashioning pottery, I saw several women doing nothing; as they had in front of them a mass of pots without the slightest ornament, I asked why they did not orna- ment them. ' What is the good? It is not necessary!' were the replies they gave. But this did not prevent two young boys from finding pleasure in imprinting with their nails and a pointed stick a sort of orna- mental border on some of the pots." 1 Tattooing is in many parts of the world chiefly in the hands of women. Thus among the Nogas of Assam it is "often performed by old women of the chiefs household, and as a matter of right." 2 Among the Aino, also, tattooing is done by women, and at present indeed it is the women alone who are tattooed. 8 Again, among the Songish or Lkungen Indians of Canada the tattooing is done by women, who introduce charcoal beneath the skin by means of a needle held horizontally. 4 It must be remembered, however, that tattooing is by no means the pure out- come of the art impulse, but a social and religious rite of a traditional character. Such semi-ritual art may be in the hands of either men or women; thus 1 Bull, Soc. cPAnthropoIogie, 19th Dec. 1878.
8 Peal, " On the Morong," Journ. Anth. Institute, Feb. 1893, 8 MacRitchie, Supplement to Internationales Archiv, fur Ethnologie, 4 Brit. Ass, Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, by Dr. Boas, 1890.
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among the Papuans (according to S. J. Hickson) the designs on houses and praus are wrought by old men or priests of the village to keep off the spirits of storms.
If we turn to the pure artistic impulse, as mani- fested in the higher stages of culture, we find that the supremacy of men in painting is unquestionable. There have been thousands of women painters, but only the men have been remembered; it would be unkind to make a comprehensive list of famous women painters. Even the great central situation of Christianity, as of life — the relation of the mother to her child — which appeals so strongly to a woman's heart, has never received memorable rendering at a woman's hand. In sculpture, also, it is scarcely necessary to add, the great names are all men, from Phidias to Donatello, from Michael Angelo to Rodin. That there have been two or three women whose names deserve honour- able mention is the most that can be said.
In the evolution of music women have played a very small part It does not appear that a woman has ever invented any well-known musical instrument, and there is not in any part of the world an instru- ment that is peculiar to women or chiefly played by them; it is rarely even that they perform on men's instruments. In aboriginal America Professor Otis Mason remarks that musical instruments are never played by women, though they beat time on various objects and may now and then use the rattle, as well as join in certain choruses. 1 Mr. Henry Balfour, of the University Museum, Oxford, has brought forward a few exceptions to the general rule from the South Pacific. "In the South Pacific the ' nose-flute ' is very generally, though by no means exclusively, played upon by women. In the account of the voyage of Captains Cook and King there is in one of the plates a figure of a woman of the Tonga Islands seated under a hut playing upon a * nose-flute.'
THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE. 319 A similar figure of a woman playing upon a ' nose-flute ' may be seen in plate 28 of Labilladiere's Voyage de La Perouse y in the representation of a Tongan double-canoe. Melville (Four Month? Residence in the Marquisas Islands, p. 251) mentions playing upon the * nose-flute ' as being *a favourite recreation with the females.' In Wilkes* U.S. Exploring Expedition, iii. p. 190, there is a description of this instrument as used in the Fiji Islands, and it is stated that 'no other instrument but the flute [" nose-flute "] is played by the women as an accompaniment to the voice.'
" Turning now to another genus of primitive instruments, viz., the ' musical bow,' we find a peculiar local form, the ' Pangolo,' occurring at Blanche Bay, New Britain. There are specimens of this at Berlin and Vienna. This instrument is stated by Dr. O. Finsch (Ann. des K. K. Naturhist. No/museums, suppl. vol. Hi., Pt. I, p. in) to be only played upon by women of Blanche Bay. Guppy too (Solomon Islands, p. 142) says that the women of Treasury Island produce a soft kind of music by playing, somewhat after the fashion of a Jew's-harp, on a lightly-made fine-stringed bow about 15 inches long.
"It cannot, I believe, be said that any of these instruments have been invented by women, and it is undoubted that women in savagery but seldom figure as performers upon musical instruments. It would certainly be interesting to collect all the instances recorded.'' — Nature, 17th Nov. 1892.
Among barbarous and civilised races in all parts of the world women have been trained profusely to play on musical instruments; but the position of the sexes has remained relatively the same as among savages. The players of music have often been women; the makers of music have nearly always been men. Unless we include two or three women of our own day whose reputation has perhaps been enhanced by the fact that they are women, it is difficult to find the names of women even in the list of third-rate composers, There is, I believe, no difference of opinion whatever on this point. Mr. G. P. Upton, in his intelligent and sympathetic little book, Woman in Music (Chicago, 1886), endeavours to magnify the part that women have played in music, but he recognises that none of the masters in music have been women. He gives a list of forty-eight women musicians who lived during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries and left compositions, but none of them rose above mediocrity. How small this Google 320 MAN AND WOMAN.
number of noted women musicians is we may realise by recall- ing that Italy alone (as Lombroso remarks in his Man of Genius) has produced not less than 1210 musicians of more or less note. Mr. Upton has, I think, very felicitously expressed one chief reason why women have failed in music, though they have had nearly equal advantages with men:— " Conceding that music is the highest expression of the emotions, and that woman is emotional by nature, is it not one solution of the problem that woman does not musically reproduce them because she herself is emotional by temperament and nature, and cannot project herself outwardly, any more than she can give outward expres- sion to other mysterious and deeply-hidden traits of her nature? The emotion is a part of herself, and is as natural to her as breathing. She lives in emotion, and acts from emotion...Man controls his emotions, and can give an outward expression of them. In woman they are the dominating element, and so long as they are dominant she absorbs music. Great actresses may express emotion because they express their own natures; but to treat emotions as if they were mathematics, to bind and measure and limit them within the rigid laws of harmony and counterpoint, and to express them with arbitrary signs, is a cold- blooded operation possible only to the sterner and more obdurate nature of man." He adds that it is significant that while a man who has once learnt to play on an instrument rarely ceases to delight in it, a woman's love for music ceases with age; it is not an aesthetic but an emotional influence. Rubenstein, in his book on Music and its Masters, has some remarks which well supplement Mr. Upton's, though they are somewhat less precise: — " This increase of the feminine contingent in music, both in instrumental execution and in composition (I except the depart- ment of singing, in which they have always excelled), begins with the second half of our century. I regard it as one of the signs of musical decadence. Women lack two prime qualities necessary for creating — subjectivity and initiative. In practice they cannot get beyond objectivity (imitation), they lack courage and conviction to rise to subjectivity. For musical creation they lack absorption, concentration, power of thought, largeness of emotional horizon, freedom in outlining, etc. It is a mystery why it should just be music, the noblest, most beautiful, refined, spiritual, and emotional product of the human mind, that is so inaccessible to woman, who is a compound of all those qualities; all the more as she has done great things in the other arts, even in the sciences. The two things most peculiar to women — love of a man and tender feeling for a child — have found no echo from them in music. I know no love duo or cradle song composed by a woman. I do not say there are none, but only that not one composed by a woman has the artistic value that could make it typical."
Google THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE. 32 1 Music is at once the most emotional and the most severely abstract of the arts. There is no art to which women have been more widely attracted, and there is certainly no art in which they have shown themselves more helpless.
It cannot be said that literature is an art It is merely a method of recording very diverse manifes- tations of psychic aptitude and artistic impulse. It is enough to mention four of these — metaphysics, mysticism, poetry, fiction.
It is remarkable that although women are so strongly drawn to religion, they have done almost nothing to give classic expression to that mysticism which is the kernel of religion everywhere. The great manuals of devotion which have fed so many thousand souls, and which all say the same thing with a few verbal differences — the manual of Lao Tze, Marcus Antoninus's Meditations, Epictetus's Encheiridion> the gospel of St John and the Epistles of St. Paul, the De Imitatione Christi, the Deutsche TJieologie> much of the writings of Schopenhauer — are the work of men, although they have probably found, on the whole, at least as many readers among women as among men. St Teresa is, so far as I know, the only woman who can be put in the first rank, but it must be added that there is an element of unquestionable morbidity in her work which cannot be said to characterise any of the great mystics I have named, not even St. Paul or Schopenhauer. Madame Guyon's name occurs, but she belongs to the second rank of mystics, which numbers a vast army of men.
The art of metaphysics belongs almost exclusively to men. Even in the third rank of metaphysicians the names of no women can yet be very clearly discerned. The philosopher's art consists in building up an ideal and conjectural world on the basis of his own psychic organism; it is of all arts that in which emotion is most highly intellectualised, and the material most abstracted from the practical and 21 Google 322 MAN AND WOMAN.
concrete Whether women's failure here means the condemnation of metaphysics or the condemnation of women is a problem which every one will decide according to the basis of his own temperament In poetry women have done much more than in either mysticism or metaphysics. The strong emotional poetic energy, chiefly lyrical in form, which in English is perhaps best represented by Mrs. Browning, had been expressed by the women of many lands. At the same time it has had a tendency to be either rather thin or rather diffuse and formless. Strong poetic art, which involves at once both a high degree of audacity and brooding deliberation, is very rare in women. We have a Sappho and a Christina Rossetti— one representative of each of the great poetic nations of Europe — but it is difficult (I will not say impossible) to find other women poets who show in any noteworthy degree the qualities of imagination, style, and architectonic power which go to the making of great poetry. Indeed, so far as constructive power is concerned, even Sappho's fragments imply rather than reveal.
Mr. Edmund Gosse has made some remarks worth quoting as to the place occupied by women in the poetic literature of the world: — "That Shakespeare should have had no female rival, that the age in which music burdened every bough, and in which poets made their appearance in hundreds, should have produced not a solitary authentic poetess, even of the fifth rank, this is curious indeed. But it is as rare as curious, for though women have not often taken a very high position on Parnassus, they have seldom thus wholly absented themselves. Even in the iron age of Rome, where the muse seemed to bring forth none but male children, we find, bound up with the savage verses of Juvenal and Persius, those seventy lines of pure and noble indignation against the brutality of Domitian which alone survive to testify to the genius of Sulpicia.
" It is no new theory that women, in order to succeed in poetry, must be brief, personal, and concentrated. It was recognised by the Greek critics themselves. Into that delicious garland of the poets which was woven by Meleager to be hung outside the gate of the Gardens of the Hesperides he admits but two women from all the centuries of Hellenic song. Sappho Google THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE. 323 is there indeed, because, though her flowers were few, they were all roses/ and, almost unseen, a single virginal shoot of the crocus bears the name of Erinna. That was all that womanhood gave of durable poetry to the literature of antiquity. A critic, writing five hundred years after her death, speaks of still hearing the swan-note of Erinna clear above the jangling chatter of the jays, and of still thinking those three hundred hexameter verses sung by a girl of nineteen as lovely as the loveliest of Homer's. Even at the time of the birth of Christ, Erinna's writings consisted of what could be printed on a page of this magazine. The whole of her extant work, and of Sappho's too, could now be pressed into a newspaper column. But their fame lives on, and of Sappho, at least, enough survives to prove beyond a shadow of doubt the lofty inspiration of her genius. She is the type of the woman-poet who exists not by reason of the variety or volume of her work, but by virtue of its intensity, its individuality, its artistic perfection.,, (Edmund Gosse, "Christina Rossetti," Century Magazine, June 1893.)
In fiction women are acknowledged to rank in- comparably higher than in any other form of literary art Thus in England, at all events, in Jane Austen, Charlotte and Emily Bronte, George Eliot, we possess four story-tellers who, in their various ways, are scarcely, for the artistic quality and power of their work (although not for quantity and versatility), behind our best novelists of the male sex. In France, it is true, where the novel has perhaps reached the highest degree of artistic perfection, women, owing to a variety of circumstances, have produced little fiction of artistic value, but in many countries of Europe at the present day, both in the north and in the south, there are one or two women who stand in the first rank. It is only when (as in the work of Flaubert) the novel almost becomes a poem, demanding great archi- tectonic power, severe devotion to style, and complete self-restraint, that women have not come into competi- tion with men. But fiction in the proper sense makes far less serious artistic demands than poetry, inasmuch as it is simply an idealised version of life, and may claim to follow any of the sinuous curves of life. What it demands is a quick perception of human character and social life, coloured by a more or less Google 324 MAN AND WOMAN.
intense emotional background. A vivid perception of social phenomena — of the interaction of men and women which is the basis of fiction — is natural to all women, who are, in a sense, more close to the social facts of life than men. They are, too, more receptive of detailed social impressions and more tenacious of such impressions. In the poorest and least cultured ranks the conversation of women consists largely of rudimentary novelettes in which " says he " and " says she" play the chief parts. Every art, one may say, has an intellectual and an emotional element: women have done so well in fiction because they are here organically fitted to supply both elements. In fiction women possess a method of self-expression which is artistically well within their grasp.
There is at least one art in which women may be said not merely to nearly rival but actually to excel men: this is the art of acting. Pierre Roussel, in a land and in an age prolific in dramatic ability, observed many years ago that there are more good actresses than good actors. 1 The same may probably be said at the present day; France, at all events, can show no male rival of Sarah Bernhardt And if we look back at the history of the stage during the last two hundred years, against every famous actor whose name survives it seems usually possible to place a still more famous actress. With women's success as actresses may be associated their perhaps equally undoubted success as singers, singing being merely vocalised dramatic art. It is not difficult to find the organic basis of women's success in acting. In women mental processes are usually more rapid than in men; they have also an emotional explosiveness much more marked than men possess, and more easily within call. At the same time the circumstances of women's social life have usually favoured a high degree of flexibility and adaptibility as regards behaviour; and they are, again, more trained in the vocal expression both of 1 P. Roussel, Systime ds la Femme % Partie I., chap. iv.
Google THE ARTISTIC IMPULSE. 325 those emotions which they feel and those emotions which it is considered their duty to feel. Women are, therefore, both by nature and social compulsion, more often than men in the position of actors. It is probable also that women are more susceptible than men to the immediate stimulus of admiration and applause supplied by contact with an audience. In the allied art of dancing women are also supreme.
It is worth remarking, in connection with the superiority of women in acting, that it has frequently been found that women are also better readers. Thus Mr. Bryce, in a report on the state of education in Lancashire, remarks in regard to reading: — "This is one of the few things in which girls' schools are markedly better than boys'. There does not seem to be much more direct training in the one case than in the other, so it is left us to suppose that the superiority of the girls is due to their more correct ear, their quicker perception of the meaning of what they read, and that more perfect harmony which seems to exist between their intelligence and its expression in voice, feature, and gesture. Even where they have no special training, they are free from that plodding awkwardness which generally belongs to a Lancashire boy's reading. And in several schools, where the mistresses had accustomed their pupils to read aloud, and had carefully checked any tendency to affectation, the reading was everything that could be desired in point of grace, variety, and expressiveness." And Mr. Fearon, reporting on schools on the East Coast, also refers to the superiority of girls in reading; he found that even in mixed schools girls read better than boys. (D. Beale, Reports issued by the Schools* Inquiry Commission^ pp. 55 and 136.)
Legouve*, who has had a long and intimate connection with the stage, has some remarks on the success of women in acting in his charming and acute though scarcely scientific Histoire Morale de la Femme y 6th ed., 1874 (P- 345) • — "Whether actor or singer, the interpretative artist needs above all a talent for observing details, flexibility of the organism to follow the move- ments of thought, and above all, that mobile, ardent, and varied impressionability which multiplies in an almost incredible de- gree the sensations and signs which represent it For this reason the dramatic faculty is more native to women than to men. All £reat cantatrices, as experience shows, reach the supreme height of their talent before the age of twenty, that is to say, after four years of study; a man to be a great singer requires eight years. We have all seen a consummate actress who was not yet ten years old; and it has been reserved to the Google 326 MAN AND WOMAN.
female sex to produce the marvel which we admire to-day of a young girl reaching in a few months the heights of dramatic art which Talma, Lekain, and Baron only attained to after long labour and in the maturity of their age." (See also a chapter in Upton's Woman in Music on "Woman as the Interpreter of Music") On the whole, there can be no doubt whatever that if we leave out of consideration the interpretative arts, the artistic impulse is vastly more spontaneous, more pronounced, and more widely spread among men than among women. There is thus a certain justification for Schopenhauer's description of women as the unaesthetic sex. Even in the matter of cooking we may see how emphatic is the tendency for an art to fall into the hands of men. All over the world cooking, as an industry, is women's business, yet wherever cooking rises from an industry to become something of an art it is nearly always in the hands of a man.
Galton found, in investigating nearly 900 indi- viduals, that 28 per cent, males and 33 per cent females showed artistic tastes — /.*., were fond of music, drawing, etc. That is to say, that notwithstanding all that our education does to bring out artistic tastes in women, the sexes remain nearly equal. 1 If we go back to early times we may be perfectly sure that the rough drawings of men, animals, and other natural objects which are found on primitive implements and on rocks are the work of men. At the present day the impulse to scribble, draw, and carve — the artistic impulse in its most primitive form — is very much more marked in boys and men than in girls and women. Both in colleges and prisons this difference is decided.