Quid ergo tarn iniquum videri potest, quam Hispanos vectigalem habere Terrarum Orbem, ut nisi ad illorum nutum nee emere liceat nee vendere? * In cunctis civitatibus dardanarios odio atque etiam poenis prosequimur; nee ullum tarn nefarium vitae genus videtur, quam ista annonae flagellatio.5 Merito quidem. Naturae enim faciunt 1 Vasquius, 1. c.
4 Code IV, 59 (De monopoliis, L. 1).
• Caietanus on Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 77, a. 1, ad 3.
another, even if that other had already discovered it.1 Who would countenance an artisan who complained that another artisan was taking away his profits by the exercise of the same craft? But the cause of the Dutch is the more reasonable, because their advantage in this matter is bound up with the advantage of the whole human race, an advantage which the Portuguese are trying to destroy.2 Nor will it be correct to say, that this is done in rivalry, as Vasquez shows in a similar case. For clearly we must either deny or affirm that this is done not only in honorable but in most honorable rivalry, and, according to Hesiod, ' This rivalry is honorable for mortal men '.3 For, says Vasquez, if any one should be so moved by love for his fellow men that he sells grain in hard times for a lower price than usual, he would diminish the wicked oppression of those men who in the same season of cruel financial stringency would have sold their grain at a higher price than usual. But, some one will object, by such methods the profits of others will be made less. ' We do not deny it ', says Vasquez, ' but they are made less to the corresponding advantage of all other men. And would that the profits of all Rulers and Tyrants of this world could be thus lessened '!
Indeed can anything more unjust be conceived than for the Spaniards to hold the entire world tributary, so that it is not permissible either to buy or to sell except at their good pleasure? * In all states we heap odium upon grain speculators and even bring them to punishment; and in very truth there seems to be no other sort of business so disgraceful as that of forcing up prices in the grain market.5 That is not 1 Vasquius, same reference.
• Vasquius, same reference, n. 5.
• In his Works and Days [The entire passage as translated by A. W. Mair (Oxford translation, page 1) is: "For when he that hath no business looketh on him that is rich, he hasteth to plow and to array his house: and neighbour vieth with neighbour hasting to be rich: good is this Strife for men."].
' Cajctan on Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 77, a, 1, ad 3.
iniuriam, quae in commune f ecunda est: l neque vero censeri debet in usus paucorum reperta negotiatio, sed ut quod alteri deest alterius copia pensaretur, iusto tamen compendio omnibus proposito, qui laborem ac periculum transferendi in se suscipiunt.
Hoc ipsum igitur quod in republica, id est, minore hominum conventu, grave et perniciosum iudicatur, in magna ilia humani generis societate ferendumne est? ut scilicet totius mundi monopolium faciant populi Hispani? Invehitur Ambrosius in eos qui maria claudunt,2 Augustinus in eos qui itinera obstruunt; Nazianzenus in8 coemptores suppressoresque mercium, qui ex inopia aliorum soli quaestum faciunt, et ut ipse facundissime loquitur Haranpay^arevovrai rijs evdtias. Quin et divini sapientis sententia publicis diris devovetur sacerque habetur, qui alimenta supprimendo vexat annonam: o evvtx°°v Clament igitur Lusitani quantum, et quam diu libebit: ' Lucra nostra deciditis '. Respondebunt Batavi: ' Immo nostris invigilamus. Hocne indignamini in partem nos venire ventorum et maris? Et quis ilia vobis lucra mansura promiserat? Salvum est vobis, quo nos contenti sumus '.
1 In funere Basilii.
to be wondered at, for such speculators are doing an injury to nature, who, as Aristotle says, is fertile for all alike.1 Accordingly it ought not to be supposed that trade was invented for the benefit of a few, but in order that the lack of one would be counterbalanced by the oversupply of another, a fair return also being guaranteed to all who take upon themselves the work and the danger of transport.
Is the same thing then which is considered grievous and pernicious in the smaller community of a state to be put up with at all in that great community of the human race? Shall the people of Spain, forsooth, assume a monopoly of all the world? Ambrose inveighs against those who interfere with the freedom of the sea; 2 Augustine against those who obstruct the overland routes; and Gregory of Nazianzus8 against those who buy goods and hold them, and thus (as he eloquently says) make profits for themselves alone out of the helplessness and need of others. Indeed in the opinion of this wise and holy man any person who holds back grain and thus forces up the market price ought to be given over to public punishment and be adjudged worthy of death.
Therefore the Portuguese may cry as loud and as long as they shall please: ' You are cutting down our profits '! The Dutch will answer: ' Nay! we are but looking out for our own interests! Are you angry because we share with you in the winds and the sea? Pray, who had promised that you would always have those advantages? You are secure in the possession of that with which we are quite content '.
1 Politics I, 9.
' In funere Basilii.
CAPVT XIII Batavis ius commercii Indicani qua pace, qua indutiis, qua bello retinendum Quare cum et ius et aequum postulet, libera nobis ita ut cuiquam esse Indiae commercia, superest, ut sive cum Hispanis pax, sive indutiae mint, sive bellum manet, omnino earn, quam a natura habemus libertatem tueamur. Nam ad pacem quod attinet, notum est earn esse duorum generum: aut enim pari foedere, aut impari coitur. Graeci1 istam vocant avf6^wjv eg taov hanc onovSds sS litirayndroov ilia virorum est, haec ingeniorum servilium. Demosthenes in oratione de libertate Rhodiorum:2 xairoi xPV rovf kofifrovf t\fv6epovS efvai rdf ex roov tmray^drcov <ptvyciv, a'ff eyyvS SovXeia? ovffaf, ' COS qui volunt CSSC liberi oportet omnes condiciones quibus leges imponuntur ita fugere tamquam quae proximae sunt servituti '. Tales autem sunt omnes quibus pars altera in hire suo imminuitur, iuxta Isocratis definitionem * vocantis rd TOVS trepovS tXarrovvra iracpd TO Sixaiov. Si enim, ut inquit Cicero,* ' suscipienda bella sunt ob earn causam, ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur ', sequitur eodem auctore, pacem esse vocandam, non pactionem servitutis, sed tranquillam libertatem; quippe cum et Philosophorum et Theologorum 1 Thucydides, Isocrates, Andocidcs. 1 Isocrates, Arohidamos 51. 1 Panegyricus 176. « De officus I, 35.
CHAPTER XIII The Dutch must maintain their right of trade with the East Indies by peace, by treaty, or by war Wherefore since both law and equity demand that trade with the East Indies be as free to us as to any one else, it follows that we are to maintain at all hazards that freedom which is ours by nature, either by coming to a peace agreement with the Spaniards, or by concluding a treaty, or by continuing the war. So far as peace is concerned, it is well known that there are two kinds of peace, one made on terms of equality, the other on unequal terms. The Greeks 1 call the former kind a compact between equals, the latter an enjoined truce; the former is meant for high souled men, the latter for servile spirits. Demosthenes in his speech on the liberty of the Rhodians 2 says that it was necessary for those who wished to be free to keep away from treaties which were imposed upon them, because such treaties were almost the same as slavery. Such conditions are all those by which one party is lessened in its own right, according to the definition of Isocrates.3 For if, as Cicero says,* wars must be undertaken in order that people may live in peace unharmed, it follows that peace must be called not a pact which entails slavery but which brings undisturbed liberty, especially as peace and justice according to 1 Thucydides, Isocrates, Andocides.
'Isocrates, Archidamos 51 [Grotius probably quoted here from memory].
1 Panegyric 176.
complurium 1 iudicio pax et iustitia nominibus magis quam re differant, sitque pax non qualiscumque, sed ordinata concordia.
Indutiae autem si fiunt satis apparet ex ipsa indutiarum natura non debere medio earum tempore condicionem cuinsquam deteriorem fieri, cum ferme interdicti uti possidetis instar obtineant.
Quod si in bellum trudimur hostium iniquitate, debet nobis causae aequitas spem ac fiduciam boni eventus addere. vnep coy ay e\arrdovrai ptxpl Svrarov aayrfS ito\tvai, nepl 6f TOV nXtovexTtiy ot>x ovT&f, ' pro his in quibus iniuria afficiuntur omnes quantum omnino possunt depugnant: at propter alieni cupiditatem non item'; quod et Alexander Imperator ita expressit: TO j^v apxfiv dSlxcov epycov ovx dyYCkfiioya ex£t ri?y itpoxXrjaiy, TO 6e TOvS oxh-ovyrat anoffeifffffai en re TTJS ayaOfjf avvsiSr/aeoof txn TO OappaXioy, xai tn. TOV jjaj \adiH£iy aTOC afAvraffdai vndpx11 TO svfXm, ' eius a quo coepit iniuria, provocatio maxime invidiosa est; at cum depelluntur aggressores, sicut bona conscientia fiduciam secum fert, ita quia de vindicanda non de inferenda iniuria laboratur, spes etiam adsunt optimae '. Si ita necesse est, perge gens mari invictissima, nee tuam tantum, sed humani generis libertatem audacter propugna.
Nee te, quod classis centenis remigat alls, Terreat: INFITO labitur ilia MARI: Quodve vehunt prorae Centaurica saxa minantes, Tigna cava et pictos experiere metus. Frangit et attollit vires in milite causa; Quae nisi iusta subest, excutit arma pudor.* 1 Polus Lucanus apud Stobaeum, De iustitia (III, p. 362 Wachsmut-Hense); Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis; Augustinus, De civitate Dei IV, 15. •Demosthenes, De libertate Rhodiorum XV, 10 (p. 193 R.). •Propertius IV, vi, 47-52.
the opinion of many philosophers and theologians * differ more in name than in fact, and as peace is a harmonious agreement based not on individual whim, but on well ordered regulations.
If however a truce is arranged for, it is quite clear from the very nature of a truce, that during its continuance no one's condition ought to change for the worse, inasmuch as both parties stand on the equivalent of a uti possidetis.
But if we are driven into war by the injustice of our enemies, the justice of our cause ought to bring hope and confidence in a happy outcome. " For," as Demosthenes has said, " every one fights his hardest to recover what he has lost; but when men endeavor to gain at the expense of others it is not so." 2 The Emperor Alexander has expressed his idea in this way: ' Those who begin unjust deeds, must bear the greatest blame; but those who repel aggressors are twice armed, both with courage because of their just cause, and with the highest hope because they are not doing a wrong, but are warding off a wrong '.
Therefore, if it be necessary, arise, O nation unconquered on the sea, and fight boldly, not only for your own liberty, but for that of the human race. " Nor let it fright thee that their fleet is winged, each ship, with an hundred oars. The sea whereon it sails will have none of it. And though the prows bear figures threatening to cast rocks such as Centaurs throw, thou shalt find them but hollow planks and painted terrors. 'Tis his cause that makes or mars a soldier's strength. If the cause be not just, shame strikes the weapon from his hands." 3 1 Polus Lucanus apud Stobaeum, De iustitia; Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis; Augustine, City of God IV, 15.
•On the liberty of the Rhodians XV, 10 [Pickard-Cambridge's translation I, page 59].
• Propertius IV, vi, 47-52 [Butler's (Loeb) translation, page 305].
Si iusta multi, et ipse Augustinus,1 arma crediderunt eo nomine suscipi, quod per terras alienas iter innoxium negaretur, quanto ilia erunt iustiora, quibus maris, quod naturae lege commune est, usus communis et innoxius postulatur? Si iuste oppugnatae sunt gentes quae in suo solo commercia aliis interdicebant, quid illae quae populos ad se nihil pertinentes per vim distinent, ac mutuos earum commeatus intercludunt? Si res ista in iudicio agitaretur, dubitari non potest quae a viro bono expectari deberet sententia, ait Praetor: 2 ' Quo minus illi in flumine publico navem agere, ratem agere, quove minus per ripam exonerate liceat, vim fieri veto '. De mari et litore in eandem f ormam dandum interdictum docent interpretes, exemplo Labeonis, qui cum interdiceret Praetor: 3 ' Ne quid in flumine publico ripave eius facias, quo static iterve navigio deterius sit, fiat '; simile dixit interdictum competere in mari: * ' Ne quid in mari inve litore facias, quo portus, statio, interve navigio deterius sit, fiat '.
Immo et post prohibitionem, si quis scilicet in mari navigare prohibitus sit, aut non permissus rem suam vendere, aut re sua uti, iniuriarum eo nomine competere actionem Vlpianus respondit.5 Theologi insuper et qui tractant casus, quos vocant, conscientiarum, Concordes tra- 1 De civitate Dei V, 1.
• Digest XLIII, 14, 1 (Ut in flumine publico navigare liceat).
• Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. 1, in principle).
4 Digest XLIII, IS, 1 (De fluminibus, L. 1, § Si in mari aliquid).
• Digest XLIII, 8, 2 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. 2, § Si quis); XLVII, 10, 13 et 24 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum actio, et L. Si quis proprium); Silvestris, In verbo ' restitutio ', 3 sub finem; Oldradus et Archidiaconus on Digest XLVIII, 12, 2 (De lege lulia de annona), and XLVII, 11, 6 (De extraordinariis criminibus. L. Annonam).
If many writers, Augustine himself1 among them, believed it was right to take up arms because innocent passage was refused across foreign territory, how much more justly will arms be taken up against those from whom the demand is made of the common and innocent use of the sea, which by the law of nature is common to all? If those nations which interdicted others from trade on their own soil are justly attacked, what of those nations which separate by force and interrupt the mutual intercourse of peoples over whom they have no rights at all? If this case should be taken into court, there can be no doubt what opinion ought to be anticipated from a just judge. The praetor's law says: 2 ' I forbid force to be used in preventing any one from sailing a ship or a boat on a public river, or from unloading his cargo on the bank '. The commentators say that the injunction must be applied in the same manner to the sea and to the seashore. Labeo, for example, in commenting on the praetor's edict,8 ' Let nothing be done in a public river or on its bank, by which a landing or a channel for shipping be obstructed ', said there was a similar interdict which applied to the sea, namely,* ' Let nothing be done on the sea or on the seashore by which a harbor, a landing, or a channel for shipping be obstructed '.
Now after this explicit prohibition, if any one be prevented from navigating the sea, or not allowed to sell or to make use of his own wares and products, Ulpian says that he can bring an action for damages on that ground.5 Also the theologians and the casuists agree that he who prevents another from buying or selling, or who puts his 1 City of God V, 1.
•Digest XLIII, 8, 2j XLVII, 10, 13 and 24; Silvestris, on the word ' restitutio'; Oldradus and Archidiaconus on Digest XLVIII, 12, 2, and XLVII, 11, 6 [Oldrado de Ponte (?-1335), a Bologna canonist. Archidiaconus is probably the Italian decretalist Guido Bosius.]
dunt, eum qui alteruni vendere aut emere impediat, utilitatemve propriam publicae ac communi praeponat, aut ullo modo alterum in eo quod est iuris communis impediat, ad restitutionem teneri omnis damni viri boni arbitrio.
Secundum haec igitur vir bonus iudicans, Batavis libertateni commerciorum adiudicaret. Lusitanos et ceteros, qui earn libertatem impediunt, vetaret vim facere, et damna restituere iuberet. Quod autem in iudicio obtineretur, id ubi iudicium haberi non potest, iusto bello vindicatur. Augustinus: 1 ' Iniquitas partis adversae iusta ingerit bella '. Et Cicero: * ' Cum sint duo genera decertandi, ununi per disceptationem, alterum per vim, conf ugiendum ad posterius, si uti non licet priore '. Et Rex Theodoricus: ' Veniendum tune ad anna, cum locum apud adversarium iustitia non potest reperire '. Et quod proprius est nostro argumento,1 Pomponius eum qui rem omnibus communem cum incommodo ceterorum usurpet, MANY PROHEBENDVM respondit. Theologi quoque tradunt, sicuti pro rerum cuiusque defensione bellum recte suscipitur, ita non minus recte suscipi, pro usu earum rerum quae natural! iure debent esse communes. Quare ei qui itinera praecludat, evectionemque mercium impediat, etiam non expectata ulla publica auctoritate, via facti, ut loquuntur, posse occurri.
Quae cum ita sint, minima verendum est, ne aut Deus 1 De cmtate Dei IV. *De ofieiis I, 34.
'Digest XLI, 1, 50 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quanms quod in litore); Henricus ron Gorcum, De bello josto 9.
private interests before the public and common interests, or who in any way hinders another in the use of something which is his by common right, is held in damages to complete restitution in an amount fixed by an honorable arbitrator.
Following these principles a good judge would award to the Dutch the freedom of trade, and would forbid the Portuguese and others from using force to hinder that freedom, and would order the payment of just damages. But when a judgment which would be rendered in a court cannot be obtained, it should with justice be demanded in a war. Augustine1 acknowledges this when he says: 'The injustice of an adversary brings a just war '. Cicero also says: 2 " There are two ways of settling a dispute; first, by discussion; second, by physical force; we must resort to force only in case we may not avail ourselves of discussion." And King Theodoric says: 'Recourse must then be had to arms when justice can find no lodgment in an adversary's heart '. Pomponius, however, has handed down a decision which has more bearing on our argument * than any of the citations already made. He declared that the man who seized a thing common to all to the prejudice of every one else must be forcibly prevented from so doing. The theologians also say that just as war is righteously undertaken in defense of individual property, so no less righteously is it undertaken in behalf of the use of those things which by natural law ought to be common property. Therefore he who closes up roads and hinders the export of merchandise ought to be prevented from so doing via facti, even without waiting for any public authority.
Since these things are so, there need not be the slightest i- 1 City of God IV.
' De officiis I, SI [Walter Miller's (Loeb) translation, page 37].
•Digest XLI, 1, 50; Heinrich von Gorcum, De bello justo 9.
eorum conatus secundet, qui ab ipso institutum ius naturae certissimum violant, aut homines ipsi eos inultos patiantur, qui solo quaestus sui respectu communem humani generis utilitatem oppugnant.
fear that God will prosper the efforts of those who violate that most stable law of nature which He himself has instituted, or that even men will allow those to go unpunished who for the sake alone of private gain oppose a common benefit of the human race.
AFPEXDIX Tan letter* of FVBp HZ, Ot ttxc Bno our ••nto^ •& WKB I Portngotse is ck«rij- dfadoaed, toanalate into Lctm two of tbcrn wftieh kadi pntienfar bearupon ubc coototwrciST st BSDC, ma to ip p«3ni type of an .for for other prohibit aU l tha As to proceed to the faMImem of fall power of TOOT aafthanhr. i J, or ntnlarlr to tike contrary, beiru?
sort, or externos multos variarum nationum, Italos, Gallos, Germanos, Belgas, quorum pars maior, quantum intelligimus, eo venit per Persida et Turcarum imperium, non per hoc regnum, adversus quos si ex huius Edicti praescripto ac rigore procedatur, posse inde nonnullas difficultates sequi, si illi ad Mauros inimicos perf ugiant, vicinisque munitionum mearum dispositionem indicent, rationesque monstrent quae rebus meis nocere possent, exsequi te hoc edictum volo prout res et tempus ferent, atque ea uti prudentia, qua illae difficultates evitentur, curando ut omnes externos in potestate tua habeas eosque custodias pro cuiusque qualitate, ita ut adversus imperium nostrum nihil valeant attentare, utque ergo omnino eum finem consequar quern hoc Edicto mihi proposui.
Scriptae Vlyssipone XXVIII Novembris, Anno MDCVI. Subsignatum erat Rex. Inscriptio. Pro Rege. Ad Dominum Martinum Alfonsum de Castro Consiliarium suum, et suum Proregem Indiae.
Prorex amice Rex multam salutem tibi mitto: Etsi pro certo habeo tua praesentia, iisque viribus cum quibus in partes austrinas concessisti, perduelles Hollandos, officers to whom its execution belongs, and that they be informed that not only will those who disobey serve me ill, but that I will punish them by depriving them of the offices in which they now serve me.
Further, inasmuch as it has been reported to me that within your jurisdiction there are sojourning many foreigners of different nations, Italians, French, Germans, and men of the Low Countries, the larger part of whom as we know came there by way of Persia and Turkey, and not through our realm; and inasmuch as, if this edict be rigidly enforced against those persons to the letter, some inconveniences might follow, if they should escape to the Moors, our enemies, and make known to our neighbors the disposition of my forces, and thus show ways that they might be able to harm my dominion: Therefore, I wish you to carry out the provisions of this edict as the exigencies of circumstances and occasion demand, and to use all prudence necessary in order to avoid those difficulties, taking especial pains to keep all foreigners in your power, and to guard them in accordance with their individual rank, so that they may have no opportunity to attempt anything prejudicial to our power, that thus I may attain fully that end which I have set forth in this edict.
Given at Lisbon, on the 28th of November in the year of our Lord, 1606. Signed by the king, and addressed: For the king, to Don Martin Alphonso de Castro, his Councillor, and Viceroy for the East Indies.
LETTER II To our beloved viceroy, I, the King send many greetings: Although I consider it absolutely certain that your presence and the forces which you took with you into those Eastern regions, guarantee that our enemies, the Dutch, qui illic haerent, nee minus indigenas qui eis receptum praebent, ita castigates fore, ut nee hi, nee illi tale quicquam in posterum audeant; expediet tamen, ad res tuendas, ut iustam classem, eique operi idoneam, cum tu Goam redibis, in istis Maris partibus relinquas, eiusque imperium et summam praefecturam mandes Andreae Hurtado Mendosae, aut si quern ei muneri aptiorem iudicabis, quemadmodum pro tuo in me affectu confido, ea in re non aliud te respecturum quam quod rebus meis erit utilissimum.
Scriptae Madritii XXVII Ian. MDCVII. Signatum Rex. Inscriptio. Pro Rege. Ad Dominum Martinum Alfonsum de Castro suuni Consiliarium, et suum Proregem Indiae.
who infest those quarters as well as the natives who give them a welcome reception, will be so thoroughly punished that neither the one nor the other will ever dare such practices in the future: still it will be expedient for the protection of our interests, that, when you shall return to Goa, you leave in those parts of the sea a fleet large and capable enough to do the business, and also that you delegate the supreme command of that fleet to Andrea Hurtado de Mendoza, or to any one else whom you shall consider better fitted for this post. I rely upon your affection for me, knowing that in this matter you will do nothing but what will be most useful to my interests.
Given at Madrid the 27th day of January in the year of our Lord 1607. Signed by the king, and addressed: For the king, to Don Martin Alfonso de Castro, his Councillor, and Viceroy for the East Indies.
INDEX Reference are to paget of text and translation alike.
Accursius, biographical note, 51, n. f; cited, 51.
Agamemnon, mention of, 9. Agreements, when not binding, 35. Air, common to all, 28; nature of, 39. Aleiiitus, A., biographical note, 10 n. 2. Alexander, Emperor, quoted, 73. Alexander the Great, mention of, 14, Alexander VI, Pope, reference to, 15, Alexandria, mention of, 68. Ambrose, St., biographical note, 33 n.
Amorites, mention of, 9. Andocides, cited, 72 n. 1. Angelus Aretinus, biographical note, Arabians, mention of, 40, 68. Arbitration, 6.
Archidiaconus, cited, 74 n. 5. Aristotle, cited, 61, 63, 71; quoted, 63. Art of exchange, definition of, 61. Athrnaeus, reference to, 29. Athenians, mention of, 9. Augustine, St, cited, 71, 74; quoted, 75; reference to, 9. Augustus, mention of, 12, 41. Avienus, quoted, 23, 24. Ayala, reference to, 16 n. 5. Aztecs, mention of, 9.
3; cited, 49; mention of, 55. Baldis de Ubaldis, biographical note, Bartolus, biographical note, 48 n. *; cited, 48; reference from, 19 n. 2. Bennett, C. E., translation from, 31. Bernhardus, St., reference from, 16 Boethius, quoted, 19. du Bois, see Silvius. Bolognese, mention of, 9. Butler, translation from, 73.
Cadiz, mention of, 40. Caelius Antipater, cited, 40. Caietanus, T. (Cajetan), biographical note, 19 n. 4; reference to, 17, 19.
Cape of Good Hope, mention of, 40, Castrensis, A. de, biographical note, 53 Castrensis, P. de (de Castro), biographical note, 49 n. *; reference Castro, M. C. de, letters to, 77. Ceylon, mention of, 11, 12. Charles V, Emperor, reference to, 21. Chinese, mention of, 62, 68. Cicero, cited, 72; quoted, 23, 25, 27, 28, 75; reference to, 29. Cinus, cited, 63 n. 1. Claudius, Emperor, mention of, 41. Clemens Alexandrinus, cited, 73 n. 1. Coercion, Portuguese, in case of East Indies, 68.
Columella, reference to, 32. Comines, P. de, biographical note, 28 Commerce, origin of, 62. Common ownership, definition of, 23. Common right, 44.
Community of use, annihilation of, 62. Connanus, F. de, biographical note, Conscience, 3. Contract, nature of, 35. Cornelius Nepos, cited, 40. Council of Spain, mention of, 20. Council of Toledo, mention of, 19. Covarruvias, D., biographical note, 9 Crown properties, in sea and river, 36. Custom, established by privilege, 52.
Demosthenes, cited, 72; quoted, 73.
Divine law, 1.
Donation of Pope Alexander VI, ref- Donellus, H. (Doneau), biographical Duarenus, biographical note, 27 n. 4.
Dutch, answer to Portuguese, 71; East India trade to be maintained by, 72; navigation by, 59; reasonable claims East Indies, mention of, 65; not chattels of Portuguese, 21, 60, 68; Portu- INDEX guese claim of exclusive right to trade in, 61; Portuguese not first in, 41; right of trade to be kept with, 72 j way is free to, 37.
Emmanuel, King of Portugal, mention English, mention of, 43.
Ennius, quoted, 38.
Equity, chapter on, 69.
Estius, biographical note, 9 n. 5.
Exchange, art of, denned, 61; derivation of, 62.
Exhaustion, question of, 57.
Expediency, 1.
Fachinham, N., biographical note, 50 Felinus, M. S., biographical note, 49 Fishing, an ancient national right, 56; free to all, 32, 38; not legal to prevent, 33, 51; revenues from, 36; a servitude, 34.
Fleets, maintenance of, 35.
Free navigation, chapter on, 7.
Freedom of trade, basis of, 63; chapter on, 61; Dutch should have, 75.
French, mention of, 43; navigation by, Gaius Caesar, mention of, 40. Genoese, mention of, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58. Gentilis, A., biographical note, 8 n. 2. Goa, mention of, 79. Gordianus, Fab. Claud., biographical Grandpont, A. G. de., xi. Greeks, reference to, 19 Gregory, mention of, 19. Gregory of Nazianzus, cited, 71. Guicciardini, cited, 68 n. 2.
Hanno, reference to, 40.
Hercules, mention of, 9.
Hermogenianus, quoted, 26.
Hesiod, quoted, 70; reference to, 22.
Homer, cited, 62.
Hugo, reference from, 16 n. 3.
Hunting, an ancient national right, 56.
India, mention of, 12.
Inner sea, as distinguished from outer Isocrates, cited, 72 n. 1, 2. Israelites, mention of, 9.
James, H. R., translation from, 19.
Java, mention of, 11.
John, King of Portugal, mention of, Jowett, B., translation from, 63.
Jurisdiction, distinguished from ownership, 35.
Labeo, quoted, 31, 74.
Law of Human Society, 9.
Law of Nature, 2, 5, 23; right conception of, 52.
Law of property, 25.
Legitimate rulers, 19.
Leo, Emperor, cited, 33.
Lucullus, mention of, 32.
Mair, A. W., translation from, 70.
Malacca, mention of, 59.
Marcianus, cited, 32, 48, 49; reference Martial, quoted, 32. Martin, J. C., xii. Megarians, mention of, 8. Mendoza, A. H. de, mention of, 79. Miller, W., translations from, 27, 38, Milton, quoted, 11 n. *. Moluccas, mention of, 11. Monopoly, question of, 71. Morocco, mention of, 40.
Navigation, Dutch, 59; free to all, 7, Nazianzenus, see Gregory of Nazianzus. Neratius, reference to, 28. Nonius Marcellus, quoted, 12 n. 2.
Occupation, definition of, 25, 39, 48; mention of, 27, 34; not to affect common use, 30.
Oldradus (Oldrado de Ponte), biographical note, 74 n. 5.
Outer sea, as distinguished from inner Ovid, quoted, 26, 28.
Ownership, common, 26; private, 29, Papal Donation, chapters on, 15, 45, 66.
Papinian, cited, 60; quoted, 48.
INDEX Paul III, Pope, reference to, 21.
Paulus, cited, 32, 51.
Personal right, 35.
Peter, St., mention of, 16.
Philip III of Spain, letters of, 77.
Pickard-Cambridge, translation from, Pirates, treatment of, 35.
Placentinus, quoted, 34.
Plato, cited, 63.
Plautus, quoted, 39.
Plutarch, reference to, 14.
Polus Lucanus, cited, 73 n. 1.
Pomponius, cited, 30, 75.
Pomponius Mela, quoted, 40 n. 1.
Pope, The, no right in temporal matters, 45; no authority against law of nature and of nations, 66.
Portuguese, arrogant pretensions of, 39, 40, 43, 75; claim of exclusive right to trade, 61; claim to ocean, 37; desire for profits, 42, 69, 71; mention of, 56, 65; not first in East Indies, 41.
Prescription, acquisition by, 49, 59; chapters on, 47, 67; definition of, 47; failure of, 50, 51; immemorial time no help to, 49, 58; reference Pretexts for war, 18.
Private, possessions, reference to, 28.
Privative right, 23.
Propertius, quoted, 73.
Property, origin of, 27.
Ptolemaeus, cited, 41.
Public opinion, 3.
Public territory, origin of, 34.
Quintilian, quoted, 25.
Revenues, on fisheries, 36. Right of innocent passage, 20, 43, 74. Right of navigation, not Portuguese because of Papal Donation, 45. Rivalry, comment on, 70. Roman Church, mention of, 19.
Sandeus, see Felinus.
Saracens, reference to, 10, 17.
Scaevola, mention of, 30.
Scott, J. B., Introductory note by, v.
Sea, The, common to all, 28, 30, 34, 37, nations, 22; nature of, 31, 39; not exhausted by use, 43, 57; not merchandise, 34; not Portuguese by Papal Donation, 45; not subject to servitude, 35, 36; sovereignty of, 53.
Seashore, common to all, 28, 30; how to be used, 30, 34; right of Roman people to, 31.
Shahan, Bishop, xii.
Silvius, F., biograpnical note, 17 n. 1; reference from, 17.
Smith, K. F., xi.
Sovereignty, grant by reason of, 17; matter of positive law, 20; Papal Donation gives no right to, chapter on, 15; a particular proprietorship, 22, 24; by right of conquest, 18; by right of discovery, 11; title to, 11; universal, 24.
Spaniards, arrogance of, 70, 71; claim to ocean, 37, 54; mention of, 56.
Strabo, quoted, 41.
Sylvius, see Silvius.
Tacitus, quoted, 10. Temporal possessions, 19. Theodoric, King, quoted, 75. Thucydides, cited, 72 n. 1; quoted, 27. Title by prescription, destroyed, 50.
Torquemada, see Turre Cremata, Trade, freedom of, 61, 63, 72; origin of, 62; Portuguese claim to right of, Trajan, mention of, 41. Turre Cremata, reference from, 16 n. 3.
Use, definition of, 24, 27; sea not exhausted by, 43; things susceptible to universal, 29.
Usurpation, definition of, 52; Portuguese worthless, 68.
Uti poiaidetii, 32, 73.
Varro, reference to, 32.
Vergil, quoted, 7, 8, 26; reference to,