enim navis aliqua ad eam magnitudinem pervenire potest qua regi nequeat, sic e£ hominum numerus et locorum distantia tanta esse, αὖ unum regimen non ferat.
2 Deinde vero concesso hoc expedire, jus imperii non sequitur, ut quod nisi ex consensu aut poena nasci nequit, Ne in omnia quidem, qu: olim fuere populi Romani, Imperator Romanus jus nune habet: multa enim ut bello, quaesita ita bello amissa sunt; alia pactionibus, alia derelictione?in aliarum gentium aut regum jus transierunt. Qusdam etiam civitates olim plane subdit», postea tantum ex parte subditze, aut tantum inzqualiter federatze esse cceperunt. Nam omnes hi modi aut amittendi, aut mutandi juris, non minus adversus Rom. Imperatorem, quam adversus alios valent.
XIV. 1 Sed et Ecclesie jus fuerunt qui adsererent etiam in populos ignote hactenus partis terrarum, cum tamen ipse Paulus apostolus aperte dixerit eos qui extra rum referuntur de Z7Zierosolyma in medio Terr» sita. J. B.]
P Jd est in medio Judcec] Discas hoe ex Josephi Lib. 111. Belli Judaici (cap. 3. S 5. divis. Hudson.)
4 In aliarum gentium aut requm jus iransierunt] Exemplum sume in Hispania, de qua vide Gomezium in ὃ fuerat: ncm. 5. de Actionibus. Panormitanum in c. venerabilem col. 9. de Electione, Jasonem in 1. cunctos populos, 1.
col. 2. Cod. de summa, Trinitate. Menochium cons. 11, num. 102. Cardinalem Tuschum practicarum conclusionum 945. 8 rex Hispanie. Molineum in cons. Paris, in pr. num. 20. Chassancum de gloria Mundi parte v. consid. 28. Azorium Znstitutionum Moralium $ Confer heic opus Auctoris nostri -De Imperio Summarum Potestatum circa Sacra, cap. iv. J. B.
the number of subjects and the distance of places may be so great that they cannot subsist under one government.
2 But even if we grant that such a government is expedient, there does not follow any right of empire, for that can arise only from consent or from punishment. ^ The Roman emperor has not now any right over even all those places which were formerly under the Roman people; for many of these, as they were won by war, so have they been lost by war; some have passed by compacts, and some by derelietion, under the authority of other nations or kings. Again, some cities, formerly entirely subject, have since become subject in part only, or have become merely federate parts of the empire. For all these ways either of losing, or of changing the rights of rulers, are valid against the Roman Emperor, as against any other party.
XIV. 1 There have also been persons who have asserted the right of the Church, even over the peoples who occupy the hitherto unknown parts of the earth, ἀπά yet St Paul plainly says, that he does not Silv. Verb. e Ὁ τ rr loco citat. n. 9.
Vict. de Ind. Rel. 21, et seq. A yala, i. 2.
Joh. x viii. 96. Vid. Petr. Dam. /. ii. epist 9. et Bern. epist.
3890 DE CAUSIS INJUSTIS. [118. II.
Christianismum sunt, judieandi sibi jus non esse: τί “γάρ μοι τοὺς ἔξω κρίνειν; 1 Cor. v. 12, Et quod jus Apostolis judicandi competit, quanquam etiam ad res terrenas suo modo pertinebat, erat tamen ccelestis, ut ita dicam, non terrestris ingenii, exercendum scilicet non per arma et flagra, sed per verbum Dei generaliter propositum et ad circumstantias peculiares aptatum, per sigillorum divin: gratiz exhibitionem aut negationem, prout cuique conduceret: postremo loeo etiam per vindictam non naturalem sed natura ipsa superiorem, ae proinde a Deo procedentem: qualis in Anania, Elyma, Hymenzo, et aliis apparuit.
2 Christus ipse, a quo omnis potestas Ecclesiastica fluxit, et cujus vita exemplar est Ecclesie, qua talis est, propositum, negavit regnum suum esse de hoc mundo, hoc est, ejus naturz cujus sunt cetera regna: addens, alioqui futurum fuisse ut more aliorum regum opera militum uteretur. Nune vero etiamsi legiones voluisset poscere, poposcisset, non hominum, sed Angelorum. Matth. xxvi. 53. Et quicquid fecit pro jure suz potestatis, id fecit non humana sed divina virr Signum medendi] Bene hoc explicat Abulensis ad Matth. ix.
s Non impedio dominationem vestram in hoc mundo] Hilarius Arelatensis: non enim ad hoc venerat Christus ut alienam invaderet gloriam, sed ut suam donaret: non ut regnum terrestre prariperet, sed ut celeste conferret.
t Dixit Chrysostomus] Verba ejus sunt de sacerdotio libro 11. (Tom. vr.
pag. 90. Edit. Savil.) μάλιστα μὲν οὖν TOUS χριστιανοῖς οὐκ ἀφεῖται πρὸς βίαν ἐπανορθοῦν τὰ τῶν ἁμαρτανόντων πταίσματα" ἀλλ᾽ οἱ μὲν ἔξωθεν δι- κασταὶ τοὺς κακούργους, ὅταν ὑπὸ τοῖς νόμοις λάβωσι, πολλὴν ἐπιδείκνυνται σὴν ἐξουσίαν, καὶ ἄκοντας τοῖς τρόποις κωλύουσι χρῆσθαι rois αὐτῶν. ἐνταῦθα δὲ οὐ βιαζόμενον, ἀλλὰ πείθοντα δεῖ ποιεῖν ἀμείνω τὸν τοιοῦτον" οὔτε γὰρ judge those who are outside the boundary of Christianity. What have I to do to judge them that are without? 1 Cor. v. 12. And the right of judging which pertained to the Apostles, though in its own way it pertained to the things of earth, yet was, as I may say, of a heavenly not of an earthly character; it was to be exercised, not by arms or by scourges, but by the word of God generally set forth, and adapted to peeuliar cireumstances; by the exhibition or denial of the seals of divine grace [communion and excommunication, G.] according to each one's case: and in short, by a mode of punishment not natural, but super-natural, and proceeding from God; as appeared in the cases of Ananias, Elymas, Hymen:eus, and others.
2 Christ himself, from whom all Ecclesiastical power flowed, and whose life is proposed as the pattern of the Church, so far as it is the Church of Christ, said that his kingdom was not of this world; that is, of tute, etiam tum eum nundinatores e templo ejecit. Flagrum. enim tum quoque divin: ir: erat signum, non instrumentum; ut alias sputum et oleum "signum medendi, non remedium. Augustinus ad indicatum Johannis locum: Audite ergo Judei et gentes: audi circumcisio: audi preputium: audite omnia regna terrena: *non impedio dominationem vestram in hoc mundo: regnum mewnm non est de hoc mundo. | Nolite metuere metu vanissimo, quo.Herodes 4lle major, cum Christus natus muntiaretur, evpavit, et tot infantes, ut ad eum mors perveniret, occidit, timendo magis quam irascendo crudelior. | Regnum, inquit, meum non est de hoc mundo. Quid vultis amplius? venite ad regnum quod non est de hoc mundo: venite credendo, et nolite scwire metuendo, 3 Episcopo inter cetera interdicit Paulus ne percussor sit, 1 Tim. iii. 2, ἀνάγκῃ κρατεῖν, imperare imposita necessitate, ea scilicet quz ex humana vi proficiscitur, regum esse, non episcoporum, 'dixit Chrysostomus. Et alibi: non est s md nobis data potestas ut auctoritate sententic (talis seilicet ^on. ii. E. τς ) hom. i. mazime Christianis non licet vi casti- Ticse- hom.
gare sontium delicta. S«culi quidem ju-! 169. de sacer.
dices, ubi maleficos sub legum potestatem, Lib. ii.
Tract. exv. num. 2.
ἡμῖν ἐξουσία τοιαύτη παρὰ τῶν νόμων δέδοται πρὸς τὸ κωλύειν τοὺς ἁμαρτά- νοντας. οὔτε, εἰ καὶ ἐδέδοτο, εἴχομεν ὅπου καὶ χρησώμεθα c7 δυνάμει, οὐ ποὺς ανάγκῃ τῆς κακίας, ἀλλὰ τοὺς προαιρέσει ταύτης ἀπεχομένους στε- φανοῦντος τοῦ Θεοῦ διὰ τοῦτο πολλῆς nacti sunt, multum potestatis jus exercent, et invitos quamvis prohibent ex suopte ingenio vivere. At apud nos non cogendo sed suadendo id agendum est, ut qui ejusmodi sit, melior evadat. Neque enim nobis a legibus ad coercendos peccatores potestatis jus datum est, et si datum χρεία τῆς μηχανῆς tva πεισθῶσιν ἑκόν- πες ἑαυτοὺς ὑπέχειν ταῖς παρὰ τῶν ἱερέων θεραπείαις οἱ κάμνοντες" omnium the same nature as other Κἰπράομηβ; adding, that if it had been, it would, like other kingdoms, have been defended by its fighting men. But no: if he had asked for legions, they would have been legions of angels. And what he did on the part of his authority, he did, not by human, but by divine agency, even when he drove the money-changers out of the temple. For the scourge which he then used was a sign, not an instrument, of divine wrath; as in other cases, the oil and the spittle was not the remedy, but the sign of cure. And to this purpose Augustine speaks on that passage of St John.
3 A bishop is required by St Paul, among other things, not to be a striker. So Chrysostom says, that to rule by force, that is human force, belongs to kings, not to bishops. And elsewhere, such power is not given to us that we can constrain men from offending by the authority of our judgments, (such, that is,) as include a right of exccu- L2 99 DE CAUSIS INJUSTIS. [Lrs. II.
quis jus exsequendi per manum regiam, aut militarem, "aut juris qualiseunque humani ademtionem in se contineat) coAbeamus homines a delictis: et episcopum officio suo fungi ait ov βιαζόμενον, ἀλλὰ πείθοντα, non cogendo, sed suadendo. Et ex his quidem satis apparet, episcopos, qua tales sunt, jus regnandi in homines humano more nullum habere, *Hieronymus regem et episcopum comparans: Z//e nolentibus preest, hie volentibus.
macvime esset, locus non esset juris ejus ecercendi, cum.Deus coronet mom eos qui necessitate sed qui voluntate libera a malo abstinent: quare multo labore opus ut persuadeantur morbidi sponte sua se prebere sacerdotali curationi. Et mox: (pag. 10) οὐ γὰρ ἑλκύσαι πρὸς βίαν ἐστὶν, οὐδὲ ἀναγκάσαι φόβῳ" neque enim qui a fide aberrat οἱ pertrahi, imo nec metu compelli potest. Idem ad Ephes. iv. cis διδασκαλίαν λόγου προεχειρίσθη- μεν, οὐκ εἰς ἀρχὴν, οὐδὲ εἰς αὐθεντίαν, συμβούλων τάξιν ἐπέχομεν παραινούν- των. ὁ συμβουλεύων λέγει τὰ περὶ ἑαυτοῦ, οὐκ ἀναγκάζων τὴν ἀκροατὴν, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτὸν ἀφίησι τῆς τῶν λεγομένων αἱρέσεως κύριον" ad docendos vero homines constituti sumus, non ad imperium, non ad exercitium potestatis. Consiliariorum locum obtinemus suadentium; qui consilium dat, de suo dicit, auditorem non cogit, sed. liberam ei relinquit electionem circa ea, que dicuntur. ('Tom. III. p. 823.) Ambrosius libro rr. de Cain et Abel e. 4. Sacerdos quidem officium suum exhibet, at nullius potestatis jura erxercet. Citatur c. verbum, de Panitentia Distinct. 1. (Cap. 51.)
" Aut juris qualiscunque humani ademtionem] Ad reges enim non ad ecclesiam pertinet judicare de feudis. c. novit 18. de judiciis: de possessionibus: c. causam quz inter 7. qui filiz sint legitimi. Reges enim superiorem in temporalibus minime recognoscunt: e. per venerabilem, 13. eod. tit. Chrisius voluit ut Christiani Imperatores pro vita «terna, Pontificibus indigerent, et Pontifices pro cursu temporalium rerum imperialibus legibus uterentur, quatenus spiritalis actio a carnalibus distaret incursibus, et Deo militans minime secularibus negoiiis se implicaret: c. quoniam, 8. distinct. x. et c. cum ad verum, 6. distinctione xcvi. unde aliena non sunt quz libro primo sunt posita, c. 11. 8 ultimo, num. 8. ex secundo et octuagesimo canone eorum qui apostolici dicuntur, et quz» in eam rem ibi plura in textu notisque afferuntur.
* Hieronymus] ldem in epitaphio Nepotiani: minus licet episcopo quam regi. llle enim nolentibus praeest: hic volentibus. Ille terrori subjicit, hic servituti donatur. ('Tom. τ. pag. 25, Edit. Dasil.) Cassiodorus Lib. xr. in epistola ad episcopos. ( Ep. 3.) episcopus doceat, ne judex possit invenire quod puniat. Fredericus primus Imperator apud Guntherum Zigurino de Pontifice, (Lib.
Ecclesiam regat ille suam, divinaque jura Temperet: imperium nobis fascesque relinquat. Suenonem Danis regem excommunication of the judgment by the hands of kings, or soldiers, or by the deprival of any buman right: and he says also, that a bishop discharges his office, not by coercing, but by persuading. From this it appears sufficiently, that bishops, as such, have no right of ruling men in a human manner. So Jerome, comparing a king and a bishop, says, that the king rules unwilling subjects, the bishop, willing cnes.
4 Whether Christian kings may make war on kings who reject 4 An vero reges ipsi iis qui Christianam religionem rejiciunt, arma quasi poene nomine inferre possint, supra capite de poenis a nobis disquisitum est quantum instituto sufficit.
XV. Hoe quoque monebo non frustra, sed quia veteribus recentia conferens magnum malum, ni caveatur, przevideo, justam belli eausam non dare "spem conceptam ex aliqua divinorum vatieiniorum explieatione. Nam przterquam quod ^que nondum impleta sunt oracula interpretari certo vix tum eum Roschildensis episcopus Wilhelmus ab ingressu ecclesie oppositu baculi pastoralis arceret, et regii capulis admoverent manum, fecit quod episcopi erat, et cervicem porrexit. [ Vide Saxonem Grammatic. Lib. x1. pag. 189, 190.] Adde quz supra habuimus libro 1. c. 5.
Y Spem conceptam ex aliqua. divinorum vaticiniorum explicatione] Vide de Theodoro quodam, Gratiani tempore, Zosimum (Lib. rv. c. 13) οὖ Ammianum Marcellinum (Lib. xxix. c. 1) de Joanne Cappadoce Procopium JPersicorum τι. (cap. ult.) et Leunclavium Aistorie Turcice Lib. xvi.
z Que nondum impleta sunt oracula, interpretari certo viz contingit sine prophetico spiritu] Clausi enim obsignatique suat libri prophetici ad przfinitum usque tempus, ita ut inteliigi nequeant, Danielis xii. 4, 8,9. Hieronymus ad Danielem (Tom. v. p. 606 n.) si propheta audivit et mon intellexit, quid facient hi qui signatum librum et usque ad tempus consummationis multis obscuritatibus involutum | presumtione mentis edisserunt? Procopius Gotthicorum 1. (cap. 24) τῶν γαρ Σιβύλλης λογίων τὴν διάνοιαν πρὸ τοῦ ἔργου ἐξευρεῖν ἀνθρώπῳ οἶμαι ἀδύνατα εἶναι" Sibyllinorum oraculorum sensum ante rei eventum invenire existimo supra hominem esse. Mox: ταῦτα τε ἀδύνατά ἐστιν ἀνθρώπῳ ὁτῳοῦν πρὸ TOU ἔργου τῶν Σιβύλλης λόγων ξυνεῖναι, ἢν μὴ καὶ ὁ χρόνος αὐτὸς ἐκβάντος ἤδη τοῦ πράγματος, καὶ τοῦ λόγου εἰς πεῖραν ἐλθόντος, ἀκριβὴς τοῦ ἔπους ἑρμηνευτὴς γένηται" fieri nequit, ut homo qualiscunque ante exitum Sibyllina oracula intelligat, sed exspectandum, donec ipsa dies, re jam consummata, et verbis experiendo comprobatis, certa fiat carminum interpres. Gregoras libro v. ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ καὶ τἄλλα τῶν χρησμωδουμένων δὺυ-σείκαστά ἐστι καὶ δυσξύμβολα καὶ πλείστας δεχόμενα τὰς ἀνελίξεις ᾿καὶ ἀναπτύξεις μέχρις αὐτῆς ἐκβάσεως" οὕτως καὶ οὗτος ὁ χρησμὸς ἐπλάνα τοὺς πλείστους, καὶ αὐτὸν δι τὸν βασιλέα Ἀνδρόνικον μέχρις αὐτῆς τελευτῆς, εἷς εἰρήσεται. ἐξ ἀνθρώπων δὲ αὐτοῦ γε- νομένου, αὐτὸς ἑαυτὸν ὁ χρησμὸς διε- σάφησεν" sicut et predictiones alie difficillime conjectu interpretatuque sunt, quod et multa habeant involucra, et explicationes recipiant multas: ita et hoc oraculum decepit omnes, ipsumque Imperatorem, quamdiu ei vita mansit, Eo autem erepto rebus humanis, ipsum semet oraculum hominibus aperuit. (Pag. 67. -Edit, Genevens.) Cavete vobis nimis audaces theologi: cavete vobis a nimis audacibus theologis politici. Dignus Christianity, on that ground, as a punishment, we have sufficiently discussed above. ΟΝ.
I will also give a warning not superfluous, but because, comparing old speculations with new, I foresee a great evil if it be not averted. A just cause of war cannot be derived from any explanation of the divine prophecies. For besides that unfulfilled prophecies can hardly be interpreted with certainty without the spirit of prophecy, [ Flor. iii. 9; Strabon. Geogr. xiv.
Viet. de Jure Bell. n. 2.
994 DE CAUSIS INJUSTIS. [1.18. II.
contingit sine prophetico spiritu, etiam rerum certarum latere nos possunt tempora. ΑΘ postremo predictio, nisi expressum adsit Dei mandatum, jus nullum dat, cum Deus, qus predixit, sepe per improbos homines aut pravas actiones ad exitum ire permittat.
XVI. lllud quoque sciendum est, si quis quid debet, non ex justitia propria, sed ex virtute alia, puta liberahtate, gratia, misericordia, dilectione, id sieut in foro exigi non potest, ita nec armis deposci. Nam ad utrumque horum non sufficit, ut id, quod postulatur, sit ex morali ratione faciendum, sed przeterea opus est in nobis jus quoddam sit ad illud, quale jus interdum leges divin: et humans dant etiam circa debita aliarum virtutum: quod cum fit, nova tune debendi ratio accedit, quze jam ad justitiam pertinet. Id eum deest, injustum ex hae causa bellum est, ut Romanorum in regem Cypri tanquam ingratum. Nam qui beneficium dedit, nullum habet jus ad reposcendam gratiam: alioqui contractus esset, non beneficium.
XVII. 1 Notandum et hoc sspe accidere, ut bello causa quidem justa subsit, sed. vitium actioni accedat ex animo agenqui inspiciatur locus apud '"Thuanum a Honoris studium] Quod vitium libro xxix. inannocIo Io nxxxrn. de — maxime nobis virtutis quadam imagine Jacobo Brocardo. blanditur. Sed recte monet Augustinus even if the events are certain, we may be wrong as to the time. And lastly, the prediction, except there be an absolute command of God, gives no right, since the events which are predicted by God are often brought to pass by wicked men or wicked actions.
XVI. "This also must be observed; that if any one has a claim upon him, which is not a claim of justice, but of some other virtue, as liberality, kindness, mercy, charity; as this claim cannot be prosecuted in a court of justice, so also it cannot be asserted by arms. For neither the one nor the other of these can be resorted to, in order that what is demanded may be done for a moral reason: it is requisite besides, that there be in us some right to that very thing: which right sometimes divine and human laws give with respect to the claims which rest upon other virtues [than justice]; and when this happens, then there is introduced a new reason of obligation, and the matter belongs to justice. When that is wanting, the war is unjust for that reason: as was, for instance, the war of the Romans against the king of Cyprus, because he was ungrateful ^ For he who has bestowed a benefit has no right to require a return: if he had, it would be a contract, not a benefit.
tis: sive quod aliud quiddam, non illieitum per se, magis et prinéipalius animum movet quam jus ipsum, puta "honoris studium, aut utilitas aliqua, sive privata sive publica, quae ex bello ipso seorsim a causa sua justifica considerato exspectatur: sive quod adest affectus plane illieitus, ut gaudium aequiescentis in malo alieno sine boni respectu. Sic Aristides de socie- Tem, v». tate secunda, Phocenses ait merito periisse, at non bene fecisse Philippum, eum eos perderet, quippe non religioni studentem, quod przferebat, sed augendo imperio.
2 Una et ea vetus causa bellandi est, inquit Sallustius, Fragm. iv. 3. profunda cupido imperii et divitiarum. — Aurum et opes precipue bellorum cause, apud Tacitum: et in tragcedia: ugue Rupere fedus impius lucri furor, VUE Et ira praeceps. Quo et Augustini illud recte referas: nocendi cupiditas, ulci- contr, Faust scendi erudelitas, implacatus et implacabilis animus, feritas rebellandi, libido dominandi, et si qua sunt similia, hec sunt quc in bellis jure culpantur. 3 Sed hze, ubi eausa justifica non deest, peccatum quidem Covarr. d. v.
2. in c. Pecc. arguunt, ipsum tamen bellum proprie injustum non faciunt: $22, unde nee ex tali bello restitutio debetur. eria QUU..:: S Ang. libro 111, de Civitate Dei, cap. 14..Sa- ^ Repete quae ex Agathia supra posuimus Verb. Beni tius esse cujuslibet inertie penas luere, ^ hic ad 8 3. [Sed in illis locis bella ar- ode cod quam illorum armorum gloriam querere, — guuntur per se injusta. J. B.] 3 3. $ XVII. 1 We must remark also that this often happens; that there is a just cause really existing for the war, but that the putting it in action becomes vicious from the intention of the agent: either becauso something else, not in itself unlawful, incites him more than the right, as for instance, the desire of honour, or some advantage, publie or private, which is expected from the war, distinct from the justificatory cause; or because there is introduced some affection plainly unlawful, as a pleasure in doing mischief to another without respect of good. So Aristides says that the Phoceans were deservedly destroyed; but that Philip was not in the right when he destroyed them, as not being really in earnest in defense of religion, butseeking to increase his empire.
2 An eminent and ancient cause of war, says Sallust, is « deepseated. desire of empire and. of wealth. So Tacitus, Gold and riches, a principal cause of war, And so in Seneca's tragedy of the Zippolytus. And so Augustine.
3 But these causes, in which a justifying cause of the war is not wanting, do indeed imply a fault in him who makes the war; but yet the war itself is not thereby unjust: and, therefore, for such a war, no restitution is due, CAPUT XXIII.
DE CAUSIS DUBIIS.
I. Dubitandi causa in moralibus unde.
IL. Nihil faciendum contra animái dictamem quamwis ervans.
III. Judicium in alteram partem duci argumentis rerum.
IV. ut auctoritate.
V. Si utrinque dubitetur in ve gravi, et alterum sit eligendum, swmendum quod est tutius: VI. Unde sequi, tali casu a, bello abstinendwm.
VII. Jd autem vitari posse colloquio: VIII. Aut arbitrio: ubi de Christianorum regum officio circa partes bellantes: IX..Aut etiam sorte.
X. Certamen singulare, ad. vitandum bellum, am permitti possit.
XI. JMeliorem esse conditionem possidentis in. pari dubio.
XIL. Si neuter possideat, in. pari dubio rem dividendam.
XIII. An bellum utraque ex parte justum detur, multis distinctionibus explicatur.
1 Eth. Nic.1. T. ERISSIMUM est quod scripsit Aristoteles, in moralibus non zque, ut in mathematicis disciplinis certitudinem inveniri; quod eo evenit, quia mathematiez diseiplin: à maa Ut nihil habeant interjectum] In his mutatio sit eis τὸ ἀντικείμενον; in aliis eis τὸ μεταξύ.
Expendit hoc PUFENDORFIUS noster, De Jure Nat. et Gentium, Lib. 1. cap.2. ὃ 9. Quzcumque Auctor heic dicit, id tantum probant, szpe sie satis difficile esse axiomata et principia Disciplinarum Moralium ad casus singulares aptare: unde tamen ipsas Disciplinas incertas esse minime sequitur. Qua de re vide qua» observavimus in Praefatione nostra ad Opus Pufendorfianum modo laudatum, $ irr. num. 3. J. B.
Ὁ Solent habere interjectum aliquid] Vide Chrysostomum ad 1v. Ephesiorum 91. moral. [id est, in τῷ ἠθικῷ Homiliz CuaPTER XXIII.
Of Doubtful Causes of War.
I. What Aristotle wrote is most true, that certainty is ποὺ to be found in morals as it is in mathematics: of which the reason is this, that mathematics separate the forms of things altogether from matter: and that the forms are of such a nature that there is nothing intermediate between two of them; as between a straight line and a curve there is no medium. PDut in moral matters, cireumstances, even the least, often vary the matter; and the forms that are treated have often intermediate degrees, of such latitude that the ease sometimes approaches nearer to the one extreme, sometimes to the other. Thus between that which ought to be done, and that which is entirely unlawful, there is a medium which is allowable, nearer - AaBdamEM ume Ic KS Car. XXIII.] DE CAUSIS DUDIIS. 397 teria omni formas separant, et quia forms ipsze tales plerumque sunt, *ut nihil habeant interjectum, sicut inter rectum et curvum nihil est medii,!AÀt in moralibus cireumstantiz& etiam minim: variant materiam, et formze, de quibus agitur, "solent habere interjectum aliquid, ea latitudine, ut modo ad hoe, modo ad illud extremum propius accedatur. Ita enim inter id quod fieri oportet, et inter id quod fieri nefas est, medium est quod licet, sed modo huie, modo illi parti propinquius: unde ambiguitas szpe incidit, ut in erepusculo, aut in aqua frigida calescente. Et hoc est, quod ait Aristoteles, ἔστε χαλεπὸν ἐνίοτε τὸ κρίνειν ποῖον avri ποίου αἱρετέον" quid, cui anteponendum sit, difficilis sepe est judicatio. Andronicus autem Rhodius: 70 κατ᾽ ἀλήθειαν δίκαιον δυσχερές ἐστι τοῦ δοκοῦν-τος διελεῖν difficile est id, quod vere justum est, ab eo, quod tale videtur, discernere.
II; 1 Primum autem illud est tenendum, etiamsi quid justum reipsa est, sed ab eo fit, qui, omnibus expensis, injustum id existimat, actum esse vitiosum. — Hoc enim est, quod dicit Paulus Apostolus, quiequid non fit ex fide, peccatum esse: ^quo in loco fides animi judicium de re significat. Nam vim judieatricem humanis actionibus ducem Deus addidit, qua contemta obbrutescit animus.
illius, Tom. 111. p. 844. Edit. Savil.]
€ Quo in loco fides animi judicium de re significat] Eodem tendunt in eadem Pauli epistola eodem capite ista (vers. δ) ἕκαστος ἐν τῷ ἰδίῳ vot πληροφο- ρείσθω" unusquisque sui sensus sibi cerius sil. Et (vers. 22) μακάριος ὁ μὴ κρίνων ἑαυτὸν ἐν ᾧ δοκιμάζει" beatus ior non est. Ambrosius: peccatum est, quod aliter fit quam probatum est. Sequitur Augustinus: citati ambo a Gratiano post cap. 14, causa 28. quzest. 1. Non longe hinc abit illud Plutarchi in T'imoleonte: δεῖ ob μόνον τὴν πράξιν εἶναι καλὴν καὶ δικαίαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ πὴν δόξαν ἀφ᾽ ἧς πράττεται μόνιμον kal ille, qui, quod praefert, in eo sui damna- ἀμετάπτωτον, ἵνα πράττωμεν δοκιμάsometimes to the one, and sometimes to the other: whence an ambiguity often takes place, like twilight between day and night, or cold water gradually heated. And this is what Aristotle says, that it is often difficult to decide which of two things is to be preferred: and 850 Andronicus Rhodius.
IL. 1 In the first place, this is certain [as a point of morality], that if anything be just in itself, yet if it be done by him who, having deliberately weighed, thinks it unjust, the act is vicious: as St Paul says, that whatsoever is not of faith is sin; in which place faith signifies the judgment of the mind concerning the act. For God has given us the power of judging, as the guide of human actions; and if this be despised, the mind is brutified.
iii. Nic. 1.
Paraph. i. 3, Rom. xiv. 23, De Offic. i. 9.
Covar. Tom. i. de matr. p.
Ethic. Nic.
n. Ὁ. De Offic. iii. 1. Lib. vii. 4.
Vasq. i. 2.
298 DE CAUSIS DUBIIS [118. II.
2 Sspe autem accidit, ut judicium nihil certi monstret, sed hssitet: qus hssitatio si attenta consideratione expediri nequeat, sequendum erit illud Ciceronis: bene praecipiunt dgui vetant quicquam agere quod dubites equum sit an iniquum. Mebrzi magistri?dieunt: pepm yo ponoH abstine te α re dubia. Sed hoc locum habere non potest, ubi alieui omnino alterutrum est faciendum, et de utroque, an squum sit, dubitatur: tune enim?licebit ei eligere, quod minus iniquum ei videtur. Semper enim, ubi electio evadi non potest, minus malum rationem induit boni. Τὰ ἐλάχιστα ληπτέον τῶν κακῶν, ait Aristoteles: Cicero, de malis minima. — Quintilianus: 4n comparatione malorum boni locum obtinet levius.
IIL. Plerumque vero in rebus dubiis post examen aliquod animus non in medio hzsret, sed hue aut illuc ducitur *argumentis ex re petitis, aut ex opinione, quam habet de aliis hominibus, sententiam super ea re pronunciantibus. Nam et σαντες" requiritur non modo, ut, quod οὖ notas nostras videre poteris. J. B.
agitur, sit honestum justumque, sed ut Jirma, ac constans adsit persuasio, unde Jiat actio, ut, quod. sit, fiat ideo quod animus ita faciendum judicaverit. (Pag.
d Qui vetant quicquam agere quod dubites] Plinius Lib. r. epist. 18. Quod dubitas, ne feceris.
? Rabbi GAMALIEL,in PIRKE ÁEOTH, pag. 14. Ed. P. Fagiüi. J. B.
5 Hoe non satis recte dici, ostendit PurENDORriIUS, Lib. 1. cap. 3. 8 8. ubi € Árgumentis ex re petitis aut ex opinione, quam. habet de aliis hominibus] Augustinus Lib. r1. de Ordine: duplex est via, quam sequimur, cum rerum nos obscuritas movet, aut rationem, auít certe auctoritatem. (Cap. 5.) Explicat hoc Gabriel Vasquez disput. rnxir. cap. 3.
f Illud Hesiodi] Usus est Minutius post malam pugnam apud Livium libro xxiL (cap. 29.) Jum primum. esse virum, qui consulat, quid in rem sit: se- 2 Τὸ often happens that the judgment does not pronounce a certain decision, but hesitates: and if this hesitation cannot be cleared off by an attentive consideration, Cicero's rule must be followed; those advise well who direct you not to do anything of which you doubt whether it is just or unjust: and so the Hebrew masters say, Abstain from, doubtful things. But this does not apply in cases where we absolutely must do one of two things: in that case we must choose the part that seems least unjust. For in all cases in which the election cannot be avoided, the less unjust assumes the character of good. ὙΠῸ least of evils is to be chosen. So Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian.
III. But in most cases, in dubious matters, the mind after some examination, does not remain undecided, but is drawn this way or that, by arguments derived from the subject, or by the opinion which it has of other men who deliver their sentiments on the subject. For hie verum est 'illud Hesiodi, prsstantissimum esse per se sapere; proximum, duci aliena ope. Argumenta ex re petuntur e causis, effectis, et adjunctis aliis.
IV. 1 Sed ad hze recte noscenda, usu quodam et peritia opus est; quam qui non habent, ut activum judicium recte conforment, tenentur audire sapientum consilia. Nam ἔνδοξα, sive probabilia sunt, Aristotele teste, qu: ommibus videntur, aut plurimis, aut certe sapientibus; iisque rursum, aut omnibus, aut pluribus, aut prsstantioribus. Et hac via judicandi maxime utuntur reges, quibus artium momenta ediscere aut expendere vix vacat: 4Zodoi τύραννοι τῶν σοφών συνουσίᾳ.᾽ Dat sapere regi turba sapientum comes. Aristides de concordia ad Rhodios ait, sicut in facti qusestionibus id pro vero habetur unde plures maximeque idonei stant lestes, ita sententiarum eas sequendas, quse plurimis przstancundum eum, qui monenti obediat: qui nec ipse consulere, mec alteri parere scit, eum extremi ingenii esse, Et pro A. Cluentio Tullius: sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod opus sit, ipsi veniat in mentem: proxime accedere illum, qui alterius bene inventis obtemperet. (Cap. 91.) Hesiodi versus, unde hzc fluxere, sic habent: Οὗτος μὲν πανάριστος ὃς αὑτῷ πάντα νοήσει Φρασσάμενος τά κ᾿ ἔπειτα καὶ εἰς τέλος ἦσιν ἀμείνω.
᾿Εσθλὺς δ᾽ αὖ κἀκεῖνος ὃς εὖ εἰπόντι πίθηται.
Ὃς δέκε μηθ᾽ αὑτῷ νοέῃ, μήτ᾽ ἄλλου ἀκούων Ἔν θυμῷ βάλληται, ὃ δ᾽ αὖ ἀχρήϊος ἀνήρ.
Ille quidem ante omnes, per se ipse quid utile, quid non Qui videt, et longe fines prospectat agendi: Qui bene consultis didicit parere, secundus * At qui consiliis pollet nihil ipse, nec audit Suadentes alios, nullos homo vivit ad usus.
(Opus et Dier. vers, 293, et seqq.)
* Vetus dictum proverbiale, quod reperitur apud AuLUM GELLIUM, JVoct. Attic. X11. 18. ubi videri possunt Intt. De re ipsa diximus in Gallicis nostris ad hunclocum Notis. J. 8.
what Hesiod says is true, that the best thing is to be wise one's self, the next best, to be guided by others. Arguments from the subject are taken from the causes, effects, and other adjuncts of it.
IV. 1 But to know them well, a certain practice and skill is necessary: and those who have not this, in order rightly to frame their active judgment, are bound to listen to the counsels of wise men. For the probable opinion, as Aristotle says, is that which is held by all, or by the greater part, or the most eminent. And this is the way of judging which kings mostly use, who have not leisure to peruse or to weigh the technical descriptions of such matters. 77e king is wise by the multitude of wise counsellors, as an old proverb says*. So Aristides. And so the ancient Romans undertook wars only after they had consulted the College of Feciales, instituted for that purpose, and the Christian Emperors rarely without consulting the bishops; that if * Quoted by Aulus Gellius, Noct. Aitic. xir. 18, J. B.
Vict. de Ind. Rel.1. n.12. et de Jure Belli, i. Topic. 1.
Tom. ii. p.
Terent. Adelph. ii. 1.
400 DE CAUSIS DUBIIS. [Laz. II.
tissimisque nitantur auctoribus. Sic Romani veteres non nisi consulto collegio fecialium ad id instituto, Imperatores Christiani vix nisi auditis episcopis, bella suscipiebant, ut, si quid. esset, quod religionem posset injicere, ejus monerentur.
V. 1 Aeccidere autem in multis controversiis potest, ut ab utraque parte probabilia se ostendant argumenta, sive intrinseca, sive ab aliorum auctoritate. Id cum accidit, si res mediocres sunt, de quibus agitur, videtur vitio carere posse electio, in utramvis partem cecideret. At, si de re magni momenti, ut de supplicio capitali hominis, agitur, jam propter magnum discrimen, quod est inter eligenda, * przferenda est pars tutior, ut dici solet: In istam partem potius peccato tamen. Ideo satius est nocentem absolvere, quam innocentem condemnare.
2 Seriptor problematum quz Aristotelis nomen praeferunt: ἕκαστος ἡμῶν μᾶλλον àv προέλοιτο TOU ἀδικοῦντος ἀποψτη-φίσασθαι ὡς οὐκ ἀδικεῖ, ἡ ποῦ μὴ ἀδικοῦντος καταψηφίσασθαι ὡς οὐκ ἀδικεῖ (quibus in verbis vulgo pro ἀδικοῦντος legitur μὴ ἀδικοῦντος, et contra) nemo est nostrum, ait, qui non malit absolvere quamvis nocentem, quam damnare innocentem. Et mox addit rationem, quam jam dedimus: ἔστι γὰρ, ὅταν