the men begin on Thursday night at 10 o'clock, and continue on with only slight intermission until late on Saturday evening."^ Even the bourgeois intellect understands the position of the " underselling " masters. " The unpaid labour of the men was made the source whereby the competition was carried on."^ And the " full-priced " baker denounces his underselling competitors to the Commission of Inquiry as thieves of foreign labour and adulterators. "They only exist now by first defrauding the public, and next getting 18 hours' work out of their men for 12 hours' wages." ^ The adulteration of bread and the formation o£ a class of bakers that sells the bread below the full price, date from the beginning of the 18th century, from the time when the corporate character of the trade was lost, and the capitalist in the form of the miller or flour-factor, rises behind the nominal master baker.^ Thus was laid the foundation of capitalistic 1 1. c. p. Ixxi. 2 George Read, The History of Baking, London, 1848, p. 16.
3 Report (First) &c. Evidence of the "full-priced " baker Cheeseman, p. 108.
4 George Read, 1. c. At the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries the factors (agents) that crowded into every possible trade were still denounced as 236 Capitalist Production.
production in this trade, of the unlimited extension of the working day and of night labour, although the latter only since 1824 gained a serious footing, even in London.^ After what has just been said, it will be understood that the Report of the Commission classes journeymen bakers among the short-lived labourers, who, having by good luck escaped the normal decimation of the children of the working-class, rarely reach the age of 42. Nevertheless, the baking trade is always overwhelmed with applicants. The sources of the supply of these labour-powers to London are Scotland, the western agricultural districts of England, and Germany.
In the years 1858-60, the journeymen bakers in Ireland organised at their own expense great meetings to agitate against night and Sunday work. The public — e.g., at the Dublin meeting in May, 18(j0 — took their part with Irish warmth. As result of this movement, day labour alone was successfully established in Wexford, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Waterford, &;c. " In Limerick, where the grievances of the journeymen are demonstrated to be excessive, the movement has been defeated by the opposition of the master bakers, the miller bakers being the greatest opponents. 'J'he example of Limerick led to a retrogression in Ennis and Tipperary. In Cork, where the strongest possible demonstration of feeling took place, the masters, by exercising their power of turning the men out of employment, have defeated the movement. In Dublin, the master bakers have offered the most determined opposition to the movement, and by discountenancing as much as possible the journeymen promoting it, have succeeded in leading the men into acquiescence in Sunday work and night work, contrary to the convictions of the men."^ The Committee of the English Government, which Government, in Ireland, is armed to the te'eth, and general^ knows how to show it, remonstrates in mild, though funereal, tones " public nuisances." Thus the Grand Jury at the quarter session of the Justices of the Peace for the County of Somerset, addressed a presentment to the Lower House which, among other things, states, " that these factors of Black well Hall are a Public Nuisance and Prejudice to the Clothing Trade, and ought to be put down as a Nuisance." The case of our English Wool, &c., London, 1685, p. 6, 7.
1 First Eeport, &c.
2 Report of Committee on the Baking Trade in Ireland for 1861.
The Working Day, 237 with the implacable master bakers of Dublin, Limerick, Cork, &;c.: " The Committee believe that the hours of labour are limited by natural laws, which cannot be violated with impunity. That for master bakers to induce their workmen, by the fear of losing employment, to violate their religious convictions and their better feelings, to disobey the laws of the land, and to disregard public opinion (this all refers to Sunday labour), is calculated to provoke ill-feeling between workmen and masters,...and affords an example dangerous to religion, morality, and social order...The Committee believe that any constant work beyond 12 hours a-day encroaches on the domestic and private life of the working man, and so leads to disastrous moral results, interfering with each man's home, and the discharge of his family duties as a son, a brother, a husband, a father. That work beyond 12 hours has a tendency to undermine the health of the working man, and so leads to premature old age and death, to the great injury of families of working men, thus deprived of the care and support of the head of the family when most required."^ So far, we have dealt with Ireland. On the other side of the channel, in Scotland, the agricultural labourer, the ploughman, protests against his 13-14 hours' work in the most inclement climate, with 4 hours' additional work on Sunday (in this land of Sabbatarians l),^ whilst, at the same time, three railway men are standing before a London coroner's jury — a guard, an engine-driver, a signalman. A tremendous railway accident has hurried hundreds of passengers into another world. The negligence of the employes is the cause of the 2 Public meeting of agricultural labourers at Lasswade, near Edinburgh, January 5tli, 1866. (See "Workman's Advocate," January 13th, 1866.) The formation since the close of 1865 of a Trades' Union among the agricultural labourers at first in Scotland is a historic event. In one of the most oppressed agricultural districts of England, Buckinghamshire, the labourers, in March, 1867, made a great strike for the raising of their weekly wage from 9-10 shillings to 12 shillings. (It will be seen from the preceding passage that the movement of the English agricultural proletariat, entirely crushed since the suppression of its violent manifestations after 1830, and especially since the introduction of the new Poor Laws, begins again in the sixties, until it becomes finally epoch-making in 1872. I return to this in the 2nd volume, as well as to the blue books that have appeared since 1867 on the positipn of the English land labourers. Addendum to the 3rd ed.)
238 Capitalist Production.
misfortune. They declare with one voice before the jury that ten or twelve years before, their labour only lasted eight hours a-day. During the last five or six years it had been screwed up to 14, 18, and 20 hours, and under a specially severe pressure of holiday-makers, at times of excursion trains, it often lasted for 40 or 50 hours without a break. They were ordinary men, not Cyclops. At a certain point their labour-power failed. Torpor seized them. Their brain ceased to think, their ej^es to see. The thoroughly " respectable " British jurymen answered by a verdict that sent them to the next assizes on a charge of manslaughter, and, in a gentle "rider" to their verdict, expressed the pious hope that the capitalistic magnates of the railways would, in future, be more- extravagant in the purchase of a sufficient quantity of labour-power, and more " abstemious," more " self-denying," more " thrifty," in the draining of paid labour-power.
From the motley crowd of labourers of all callings, ages, sexes, that press on us more busily than the souls of the slain on Ulysses, on whom — without referring to the blue books under their arms — we see at a glance the mark of over- work, let us take two more figures whose striking contrast proves that before capital all men are alike — a milliner and a blacksmith.
^ *' Reynolds' Newspaper," January, 1866. — Every week this same paper has, under the sensational headings, " Fearful and fatal accidents," " Appalling tragedies," &c., a whole list of fresh railway catastrophes. On these an employe on the North Staffordshire line comments: " Everyone knows the consequences that may occur if the driver and fireman of a locomotive engine are not continually on the look-out.
How can that be expected from a man who has been at such work for 29 or 30 hours, exj)osed to the weather, and without rest. The following is an example which is of very frequent occurrence: — One fireman commenced work on the Monday morning at a very early hour. When he had finished what is called a day's work, he had been on duty 14 hours 50 minutes. Before he had time to get his tea, he was again called on for duty...The next time he finished he had been on duty 14 hours 25 minutes, making a total of 29 hours 15 minutes without intermission. The rest of the week's work was made up as follows: — Wednesday, 15 hours; Thursday, 15 hours 35 minutes; Friday, 14^ hours; Saturday, 14 hours 10 minutes, making a total for the week of 88 hours 40 minutes. Now, sir, fancy his astonishment on being paid 6| days for the whole. Thinking it was a mistake, he ai:)plied to the timekeeper,...and inquh-ed what they considered a day's work, and was told 13 hours for a goods man (i.e., 78 hours)...He then asked for what he had made over and above the 78 hours per week, but was refused. However, he was at last told they would give him another quarter, t.e., lOd." 1. c, 4th February, 1866.
The Working Day, 239 In the last week of June, 1863, all the London daily papers published a paragraph with the " sensational " heading, " Death from simple over-work." It dealt with the death of the milliner, Mary Anne Walkley, 20 years of age, emploj'-ed in a highly-respectable dressmaking establishment, exploited by a lady with the pleasant name of Elise. The old, often-told story,- was once more recounted. This girl worked, on an average, 16 J hours, during the season often 30 hours, without a break, whilst her failing labour-power was revived by occasional supplies of sherry, port, or coffee. It was just now the height of the season. It was necessary to conjure up in the twinkling of an eye the gorgeous dresses for the noble ladies bidden to the ball in honour of the newly-imported Princess of Wales. Mary Anne Walkley had worked without intermission for 26^ hours, with 60 other girls, 30 in one room, that only afforded J of the cubic feet of air required for them. At night, they slept in pairs in one of the stifling holes into which the bedroom was divided by partitions of board.^ And this was one of the best millinery establishments in London. Mary Anne Walkley fell ill on the Friday, died on Sunday, without, to the astonishment of Madame Elise, having previously completed the work in hand. The doctor, Mr. Keys, called too late to the death- 2 Dr. Letheby, Consulting Physician of the Board of Health, declared: " The minimum of air for each adult ought to be in a sleeping room 300, and in a dwelling room 500 cubic feet." Dr. Richardson, Senior Physician to one of the London Hospitals: " With needlewomen of all kinds, including milliners, dressmakers, and ordinary sempstresses, there are three miseries — over-work, deficient air, and either deficient food or deficient digestion...Needlework, in the main,...is infinitely better adapted to women than to men. But the mischiefs of the trade, in the metropolis especially, are that it is monopolised by some twenty-six capitalists, who, under the advantages that spring from capital, can bring in capital to force economy out of labour. This power tells throughout the whole class. If a dressmaker can get a little circle of customers, such is the competition that, in her home, she must work to the death to hold together, and this same over- work she mast of necessity inflict on any who may assist her. If she fail, or do not try independently, she must join an establishment, where her labour is not less, but where her money is safe. Placed thus, she becomes a mere slave, tossed about with the variations of society.
Now at home, in one room, starving, or near to it, then engaged 15, 16, aye, even 18 hours out of the 24, in an air that is scarcely tolerable, and on food which, even if it be good, cannot be digested in the absence of pure air. On these victims, consumption, which is purely a disease of bad air, feeds." Dr. Richardson: "Work and Overwork," in " Social Science Review," 18th July, 1863.
240 Capitalist Production, bed, duly bore witness before the coroner's jury that " Mar} Anne Walkley had died from long hours of work in an overcrowded workroom, and a too small and badly- ventilated bedroom." In order to give the doctor a lesson in good manners, the coroner's jury thereupon brought in a verdict that " the deceased had died of apoplexy, but there was reason to fear that her death had been accelerated b}'' over- work in an overcrowded workroom, &c." " Our white slaves," cried the "Morning Star," the organ of the free-traders, Cobden and Bright, " our white slaves, who are toiled into the grave, for the most part silently pine and die."
"It is not in dressmakers' rooms that working to death is the order of the day, but in a thousand other places; in every place I had almost said, where * a thriving business ' has to be done...We will take the blacksmith as a type. If the poets were true, there is no man so hearty, so merr}^, as the blacksmith; he rises early and strikes his sparks before the sun; he eats and drinks and sleeps as no other man. Working in moderation, he is, in fact, in one of the best of human positions, physically speaking. But we follow him into the city or town, and we see the stress of work on that strong man, and what then is his j)osition in the death-rate of his country. In Marylebone, blacksmiths die at the rate of 31 per thousand per annum, or 11 above the mean of the male adults of the country in its entirety. The occupation, instinctive 1 " Morning Star," 23rd June, 1863.— The "Times " made use of the circumstance to defend the American slave owners against Bright, &c. " Very many of us think," says a leader of July 2nd, 18G3, ' ' that, while we work our own young women to death, using the scourge of starvation, instead of the crack of the whip, as the instrument of compulsion, we have scarcely a right to hound on fire and slaughter against families who were born slave owners, and who, at least, feed their slaves well, and work them lightly. " In the same manner, the ' ' Standard, " a Tory organ, fell foul of the Rev. Newman Hall: " He excommunicated the slave owners, but prays with the fine folk who, without remorse, make the omnibus drivers and conductors of London, &c., work 16 hours a-day for the wages of a dog." Finally, spake the oracle, Thomas Carlyle, of whom I wrote, in 1850, "Zum Teufel ist der Genius, der Kultus ist geblieben." In a short parable, he reduces the one great event of contemporary histox-y, the American civil war, to this level, that the Peter of the North wants to break the head of the Paul of the South with all his might, because the Peter of the North hires his labour by the day, and the Paul of the South hires his by the life. (" Macmillan's Magazine." Ilias Americana in nuce. August, 1863.) Thus, the bubble of Tory sympathy for the urban workers — by no means for the rural — has burst at last. The sum of all is — slavery!
The Working Day, 241 almost as a portion of human art, unobjectionable as a branch of human industry, is made by mere excess of work, the destroyer of the man. He can strike so many blows per day, walk so many steps, breathe so many breaths, produce so much work, and live an average, say of fifty years; he is made to strike so many more blows, to walk so many more steps, to breathe so many more breaths per day, and to increase altogether a fourth of his life. He meets the effort; the result is, that producing for a limited time a fourth more work, he dies SECTION 4. — DAY AND NIGHT WORK. THE RELAY SYSTEM.
Constant capital, the means of production, considered from the standpoint of the creation of surplus-value, only exist to absorb labour, and with every drop of labour a proportional quantity of surplus-labour. While they fail to do this, their mere existence causes a relative loss to the capitalist, for they represent during the time they lie fallow, a useless advance of capital. And this loss becomes positive and absolute as soon as the intermission of their employment necessitates additional outlay at the recommencement of work. The prolongation of the working day beyond the limits of the natural day, into the night, only acts as a palliative. It quenches only in a slight degree the vampire thirst for the living blood of labour. To appropriate labour during all the 24 hours of the day is, therefore, the inherent tendency of capitalist production. But as it is physically impossible to exploit the same individual labourpower constantly during the night as well as the day, to overcome this physical hindrance, an alternation becomes necessary/ between the workpeople whose powers are exhausted by day, and those who are used up by night. This alternation may be effected In various ways; e.g., it may be so arranged that part of the workers are one week employed on day work, the next week on night work. It is well-known that this relay system, this alternation of two sets of workers, held full sway in the full-blooded youth-time of the English cotton manufacture, and 242 Capitalist Production, that at the present time it still flourishes, among others, in the cotton spinning of the Moscow district. This 24 hours' process of production exists to-day as a system in many of the branches of industry of Great Britain that are still " free," in the blast-furnaces, forges, plate-rolling mills, and other metallurgical establishments in England, Wales, and Scotland. The working time here includes, besides the 24 hours of the 6 working days, a great part also of the 24 hours of Sunday. The workers consist of men and women, adults and children of both sexes. The agesof the children and young persons run through all intermediate grades, from 8 (in some cases from 6) In some branches of industry, the girls and women work through the night together with the males.- Placing on one side the generally injurious influence of nightlabour,'' the duration of the process of production, unbroken dur- 1 Children's Employment Commission. Third Report. London, 1864, p. iv., v., vi.
2 "Both in Staffordshire and in South Wales young girls and women are employed on the pit banks and on the coke heaps, not only by day but also by night. This practice has been often noticed in Reports presented to Parliament, as being attended with great and notorious evils. These females employed with the men, hardly distinguished from them in their dress, and begrimed with dirt and smoke, are exposed to the deterioration of character, arising from the loss of self-respect, which can hardly fail to follow from their unfeminine occupation." (1. c. 194., p. xxvi. Cf. Fourth Report (1865), 61, p. xiii.) It is the same in glass-works.
3 A steel manufacturer who employs children in night-labour remarked: " It seems but natural that boys who work at night cannot sleep and get proper rest by day, but will be running about." (1. c. Fourth Report, 63, p. xiii.) On the importance of sunlight for the maintenance and growth of the body, a physician writes: ' ' Light also acts upon the tissues of the body directly in hardening them and supporting their elasticity. The muscles of animals, when they are deprived of a proper amount of light, become soft and inelastic, the nervous power loses its tone from defective stimulation, and the elaboration of all growth seems to be perverted In the case of children, constant access to plenty of light during the day, and to the direct rays of the sun for a part of it, is most essential to health. Light assists in the elaboration of good plastic blood, and hardens the fibre after it has been laid down. It also acts as a stimulus upon the organs of sight, and by this means brings about more activity in the various cerebral functions." Dr. W. Strange, Senior Physician of the Worcester General Hospital, from whose work on "Health" (1864) this passage is taken, writes in a letter to Mr. White, one of the commissioners: " I have had opportunities formerly, when in Lancashire, of observing the effects of night- work upon children, and I have no hesitation in saying, contrary to what some employers were fond of asserting, those children who were subjected to it soon suffered in their wealth." (1. c. 284., p. 55.) That such a question should furnish the material of f.erious controversy, shows plainly how capitalist production acts on the brainf unctions of capitalists and their retainers.
The Working Day. 243 ing the 24 hours, offers very welcome opportunities of exceeding the limits of the normal working day, e.g., in the branches of industry already mentioned, which are of an exceedingly fatiguing nature; the official working day means for each worker usually 12 hours by night or day. But the over- work beyond this amount is in many cases, to use the words of the English official report, " tiuly fearful."^ '' It is impossible," the report continues, " for any mind to realise the amount of work described in the following passages as being performed by boys of from 9 to 12 years of age...without coming irresistibly to the conclusion that such abuses of the power of parents and of employers can no longer be allowed to exist."^ "The practice of boys working at all by day and night turns either in the usual course of things, or at pressing times, seems inevitably to open the door to their not unfrequently working unduly long hours. These hours are, indeed, in some cases, not only cruelly but even incredibly long for children. Amongst a number of boys it will, of course, not unfrequently happen that one or moi-e are from some cause absent. When this happens, their place is made up by one or more boys, who work in the other turn. That this is a well understood system is plain...from the answer of the manager of some large rolling-mills, who, when I asked him how the place of the boys absent from their turn was made up, 'I daresay, sir, you know that as well as I do,' and admitted the fact."^ "At a rolling-mill where the proper hours were from 6 a.m. to h\ p.m., a boy worked about four nights every week till 8| p.m. at least...and this for six months. Another, at 9 years old, sometimes made three 12-hour shifts running, and, when 10, has made two days and two nights running." A third, "now 10...worked from 6 a.m. till 12 p.m. three nights, and till 9 p.m. the other nights." "Another, now 13,...worked from 6 p.m. till 12 noon next day, for a week together, and sometimes for three shifts together, e.g., from Monday morning till Tuesday night." " Another, now 12, has 244 Capitalist Prodztction.
worked in an iron foundry at Stavely from 6 a.m. till 12 p.m. for a fortnight on end; could not do it any more." " George Allinsworth, age 9, came here as cellar-boy last Friday; next morning we had to begin at 3, so I stopped here all night. Live five miles off. Slept on the floor of the furnace, over head, with an apron under me, and a bit of a jacket over me. The two other days I have been here at 6 a.m. Aye! it is hot in here. Before I came here I was nearly a year at the same work at some works in the country. Began there, too, at 3 on Saturday morning — always did, but was very gain [near] home, and could sleep at home. Other days I began at 6 in the morning, and gi'en over at 6 or 7 in the evening," &;c.^ 1 1. c, p. xiii. The degree of culture of these " labour-powers " must naturally be such as appears in the following dialogues with one of the commissioners: Jeremiah Haynes, age 12 — "Four times four is 8; 4 fours are 16, A king is him that has all the money and gold. We have a King (told it is a Queen), they call her the Princess A.lexandra. Told that she married the Queen's son. The Queen's son is the Princess Alexandra. A Princess is a man." William Turner, age 12 — "Don't live in England. Think it is a country, but didn't know before." John Morris, age 14 — "Have heard say that God made the world, and that all the people was drownded but one; heard say that one was a little bird." William Smith, age 15—" God made man, man made woman." Edward Taylor, age 15 — "Do not know of London." Henry Matthewman, age 17 — "Had been to chapel, but missed a good many times lately. One name that they preached about was Jesus Christ, but I cannot say any others, and I cannot tell anything about him. He was not killed, but died like other people. He was not the same as other people in some ways, because he was religious in some ways, and others isn't." (1. c. p. xv.) " The devil is a good person. I don't know where he lives." " Christ was a wicked man." " This girl spelt God as dog, and did not know the name of the queen." (" Ch. Employment Comm.
V. Report, 18G3," p. 55, n. 278.) The same system obtains in the glass and paper works as in the metallurgical, already cited. In the paper factories, where the paper is made by machinery, night- work is the rule for all processes, except rag-sorting. In some cases night- work, by relays, is carried on incessantly through the whole week, usually from Sunday night until midnight of the following Saturday. Those who are on day-work work 5 days of 12, and 1 day of 18 hours; those on night-work 5 nights of 12, and 1 of 6 hours in each week. In other cases each set works 24 hours consecutively on alternate days, one set working 6 hours on Monday, and 18 on Saturday to make up the 24 hours. In other cases an intermediate system prevails, by which all employed on the paper-making machinery work 15 or 16 hours every day in the week. This system, says Commissioner Lord, *' seems to combine all the evils of both the 12 hours' and the 24 hours' relays." Children under 13, young persons under 18, and women, work under this night system. Sometimes under the 12 hours' system they are obliged, on account of the non-appearance of those that oiight to relieve them, to work a doiable turn of 24 hours. The evidence proves that boys and girls very often work over-time, which, not unfrequently, extends to 24 or even 3G hours of uninterrupted toil. In the continuous and unvarying process of glazing are found girls of 12 who work the whole month 14 hours a day, " without any regular The Working Day, 245 Let us now hear how capital itself regards this 24 hours* system. The extreme forms of the system, its abuse in the " cruel and incredible " extension of the working day are naturally passed over in silence. Capital only speaks of the system in its " normal " form, Messrs. Naylor & Vickers, steel manufacturers, who employ between 600 and 700 persons, among whom only 10 per cent, are under 18, and of those, only 20 boys under 18 work in night sets, thus express themselves: *'The boys do not suffer from the heat. The temperature is probably from 86° to 90"*...At the forges and in the rolling-mills the hands work night and day, in relays, but all the other parts of the work are day work, i.^., from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. In the forge tlie hours are from 12 to 12. Some of the hands always work in the night, without any alternation of day and night work...We do not find any difference in the health of those who work regularly by night and those who work by day, and probably people can sleep better if they have the same period of rest than if it is changed About 20 of the boys under the age of 18 work in the night sets We could not well do without lads under 18 working by night. The objection would be the increase in the cost of production...Skilled hands and the heads in every department are difficult to get, but of lads we could get any number...But from the small proportion of boys that we employ, the subject (?.«., of restrictions on night work) Ls of little importance or interest to us."^ Mr. J. Ellis, one of the firm of Messi-s, John Brown &; Co., steel and iron works, employing about SOOO men and boys, part of whose operations, namely, iron and heavier steel work, goes on night and day by relays, states " that in the heavier steel work one or two boys are employed to a score or two men." Their concern employs upwards of 500 boys under 18, of whom about i or 170 are under the age of 13. With reference to the relief or cessation beyond 2 or, at most, 3 breaks of half-an-hour each for meals." In some mills, where regular night-work has been entirely given up, over-work goes on to a terrible extent, "and that often in the dirtiest, and in the hottest, and in the most monotonous of the various processes." (" Ch. Employment Comm. Eeport IV 1865," p. xxxviii and xxxix.) i Fourth Report, &c., 1865, 70, p. xvL 246 Capitalist Production, proposed alteration of the law, Mr Ellis says: " I do not think it would be very objectionable to require that no person under the age of 18 should work more than 12 hours in the 24. But we do not think that any line could be drawn over the age of 12, at which boys could be dispensed with for night work. But we would sooner be prevented from employing boys under the age of 13, or even so high as 14, at all, than not be allowed to employ boys that we do have at night. Those boys who work in the day sets must take their turn in the night sets also, because the men could not work in tlie night sets only; it would ruin their health We think, however, that night work in alternate weeks is no harm. (Messrs. Nay lor & Vickers, on the other hand, in conformity with the interest of their business, considered that periodically changed night-labour might possibly do more harm than continual night-labour.) We find the men who do it, as well as the others who do other work only by day Our objections to not allowing boys under 18 to work at night, would be on account of the increase of expense, but this is the only reason. (What cynical naivete!) We think that the increase would be more than the trade, with due regard to its being successfully carried out, could fairly bear. (What mealy-mouthed phraseology I) Labour is scarce heie, and might fall short if there were such a regulation." {i.e., Ellis Brown & Co. might fall into the fatal j)erplexity of being obliged to pay labour-power its full value.)i The " Cyclops Steel and Iron Works," of Messrs. Cammell & Co., are conducted on the same large scale as those of the above mentioned John Brown & Co. The managing director had handed in his evidence to the Government Commissioner, Mr. White, in writing. Later he found it convenient to suppress the MS. when it had been returned to him for revision. Mr. White, however, has a good memory. He remembered quite clearly that for the Messrs. Cyclops the forbidding of the nightlabour of children and young persons " would be impossible, it would be tantamount to stopping their works," and yet their business employs little more than 6 % ^^ ^^7^ under 18, and less than 1 % under 13.2 The Working Day. 247