Tue modelling of the diction should, however, be neither metrical nor without rhythm!: for the first has no persuasive efficacy (since it appears to have: been got up), and at the same time it also draws off [the attention]; for it causes one to fix his attention on the similarities of cadence, when they will recur again; just in the way that little children anticipate the crier; (for when he demands,—“‘ Whom does this freedman choose as his patron?”—([they exclaim], “Cleon:”) that, however, which is without . rhythm, has no measure. The diction ought, however, to be measured, yet without metre; for what is destitute of measure is displeasing and indistinct. But by number all things are measured; and in modelling the diction, the number is rhythm!, of which 1 In pursuance of that systematic plan which we have remarked that Aristotle has adopted in considering the subject of style, he proceeds here to treat of it as addressed to the ear. 2 “ Rhythm differs from metre, inasmuch as rhythm is pro.
CHAP. στ. RHETORIC. 227 the metres are certain divisions*, Hence the sentence 8. should possess rhythm, though not metre; for then it will become verse; and its very rhythm should be without preciseness. This, however, will be the case if, up to a certain point, it be preserved.
But of the rhythms, the heroic is stately, and not 4. adapted to conversation, and deficient in varied ca- pe ec dence; the iambic, however, is the very style of the ings. multitude; whence it is that persons in conversation Heroic. give utterance to iambic lines, most of all metres, mbic. But [in a speech] there should be a degree of stateliness and departure from [the ordinary phrase]. Yet Trochaic the trochaic metre is too tripping*; and all tetrameters show it; for tetrameters are a kind of dancing rhythm®. But the pzan remains, which orators, com- Pean. mencing with Thrasymachus, began to employ; they were not, however, able to explain what it was. Yet the pzan is the third, and comes next to those {rhythms | which have been mentioned; for it is as three to two. But of the former [rhythms, the ratio Ratios of is] of the one, [the heroic,] as one to one; of the th ἃ “ Ἂ rhythms, others, [the iambic and trochaic, | as two to one®. But portion applied to any motion whatever; metre is proportion, applied to the motion of words spoken.’’ Harris. ‘“ The rhythm of a dactyl and anapest is the same; the metre is different. The distinction is similar to that of permutations and combinations in arithmetic.’”’ Seale, Analysis of Greek Metres. Metre, in short, cannot exist independently of articulate sounds; while rhythm may be heard in any proportionate succession of sounds; as in the ringing of hammers on an anvil, or the flapping of the wings of a bird.
3 Metre is distinctly stated, in the Poetic, to be a species of rhythm Harris also says, “ All metre is rhythm, yet all rhythm is not metre.” Philolog. Ing. P. ii. c. 2.
4 Twining illustrates it by the following line:— ** Jolly mortals, fill your glasses; noble deeds are done by wine.”’
5 Kopdaxixwtepos—namby-pamby: κόρδαξ was a species of immodest, lascivious dance.
€ As the Greeks considered a long syllable as equivalent to two times, and a short only to one, two short syllables were of course equivalent to one lung; so that, in either of the feet of which heroic metre is composed, a ratio of equality exists; (for- instance, in the dactyl, ~:~’:: 2:1 and 1; or, in the spondee, ~:~::;2.,2.) The same observation wil explain the 6. The gan is to e retain- 6, Two sorts of ean. he first suited to the opening. The second to the conclusion.
next to these ratios ranks that of whole and half?; and this is the pean. The others then are to be abandoned for the reasons stated, and because they are resolvable into verse: the pzean is, however, to be retained; since out of that only rhythm, of all which have been mentioned, it is not possible to construct any metre; so that [in employing it] most of all rhythms, an orator will elude detection’.
At present, indeed, the orators employ one pean, [as well in concluding] as on opening; the conclusion, however, ought to differ from the opening [of a speech]. And there are two species of pzans, opposed to each other; whereof the one is adapted to the opening, (just, in fact, as they employ it;) this is that one of which the long syllable is first, and the three short ones at the end, [as in the word | Δαλδγένξς, and Xpvctoxéna. The other, however, contrariwise, is that whereof the three short syllables are first, and the long at the end, [as in the conclusion of the line ]|— ratio of the iambus, (‘: ~::1:2,) and the trochee (~:*::2:1), Now the pean (7: ~:: 3:2) holds a mean ratio between that of the heroic metre on the one hand, and that of the iambic and trochaic respectively on the other; the ratio of the former being merely that of equality, while the ratio of the latter was too much in excess, 7 “HutoAcos—sesquiduplex—a whole and half besides;—~ ** Necesse—partem pedis aut equalem esse alteri parti; aut altero tanto, aut sesqui esse majorem. Ita fit equalis, dactylus; duplex, iambus; sesquiplex, peeon.’’—Cicero, Orat. c. 56.
8 Though the illustrations already given have been perhaps too prolix, I cannot forbear transcribing the following passage from Harris, in illustration of the whole subject:—‘ The rhythm of the heroic foot is one to one, which constitutes, in music, what we call common time; and in musical vibration, what we call the wnison. The rhythm of the iambic is one to two, which constitutes, in music, what we call triple time; and in musical vibration, what we call the octave. The rhythm next to these, is that of two to three, or else its equivalent, three to two; a rhythm compounded of the two former times united; and which constitutes, in musical vibration, what we call the fifth. ’Twas here then they discovered the foot they wanted; that foot which, being neither the heroic nor the iambic, was yet so far connected with them, as to contain virtually within «self the rhythms of them both.”—Phi-ἰυίυς. Ing. P. ii. c. 2, CHAP. 1x." RHETORIC. 229 Μετὰ δὲ γᾶν ὕδατά τ᾽ ὠκεανὸν᾽ Hpavics νυξ.
Afterwards night obscured both earth, and water, and ocean. This [ pzean] makes a good conclusion; whereas the short syllable, owing to its being incomplete, renders the sentence mutilated. But it is right to break off with a long syllable, for your conclusion to be clearly marked, not by means of the amanuensis, nor merely by annotations on the margin, but by means of the rhythm.
That, then, the diction should be conformable to rhythm, and not deficient in it, the particular rhythms too which will render it so conformable, and these under what arrangement, have been stated.
Of Style continuous and its opposite*.
THE style must needs be either continuous, and united 1. Style by means of connectives, just like the protracted odes 38 of two of the dithyrambic poets?; or reflex, and like the a Snd ae antistrophic odes of the old poets. κατε- Now the continuous style is the old style, as, “" This ney tales is the exposition of the historical research of Hero- 9,;, ‘slpos dotus, of Thurium%,” ete. For formerly indeed every seats rupted, ᾿ 1 Style is here considered as addressed to the intellect of the auditor.
3 Λέξις εἰρομένη, in which the sentence has no other unity than that which copulatives give it, nor any other measure than the completion of the sense, and the necessity of taking breath; or, as Cicero in few words so admirably describes it, “‘illa sine tntervallis loquacitas perennis et profluens.” This Aristotle compares to what he calls the ἀναβολαὶὲ in dithyrambic poetry; meaning, I think, evidently the long, irregular, protracted odes of the more modern dithyrambic poets: for the word ἀναβολὴ, here, does not, I believe, signify exordium, proemium, as usually understood, but was, probably, the name by which ὠδαὶ μακραὶ καὶ πολυειδεῖς were distinguished,’ ete. —Twining, note 17, 3. Herodotus, though a native of Halicarnassus, went latterly ΔΆ a colonist to Thurium.
Definition of it.
3. Reflex style in periods, is pleasing.
Easily remembered.
one employed it, but now very few. I call that continuous, which in itself has no termination, should not the circumstance under narration have been terminated. But it is unpleasant, from its being indefinite; for all like to descry the end. Wherefore it is that racers pant and faint away just at the turn; for before, while they have the goal in view before them, they do not tire. ‘The continuous style, then, is this.
But the reflex is that which consists of periods. I call a period a form of words which has independently in itself a beginning and ending, and a length easily taken in at a glance. A diction of this description is pleasing, and easily conveys information: now it is pleasing from its being the opposite of that which is indefinite*; and because the hearer all along supposes that he is securing something, from the circumstance that something is constantly finished off for him; but the not foreseeirg nor despatching any thing is unpleasant: and it easily conveys information, because it is easily remembered; this, however, is the case, because the diction which consists of periods has number, which of all things is most easily recollected. And hence every one remembers verse better than prose; for it has numbers by which it is measured. ‘The period ought also to be terminated with the sense, and not to be interrupted like this verse of Sophocles,— Pi While other sentences are indefinite, and (like a geometrical right line) may be produced indefinitely, the pertod (like a circular line) is always circumscribed, returns and terminates at a given point. In other words, while other sentences, by the help of common copulatives, have a sort of boundless effusion, the constituent parts of a period have a sort of reflex union, in which union the sentence is so far com- -plete, as neither to require, nor even to admit a further extension. Readers find a pleasure in this grateful circuit, which teads them so agreeably to an acquisition of knowledge.” Harris, Philolog. Inq. P. ii. c. 4. He quotes the commencement of his own Hermes and Philosophical Arrangements, with the opening of Cicero’s Offices, Demosthenes’ Oration concerning the Crown, and that of the Panegyric by Isocrates, (whom he calls the father of periods,) ag instances of period. ical style.
CHAP. Ix.] RHETORIC, 231 “ This is Calydon, land of the territory of Pelops*.” For by dividing it is possible to understand the contrary [of the fact], as in the case of the instance cited, that Calydon is in Peloponnesus.
A period either consists of clauses, or is simple. 5. A pe-But the period consisting of clauses is a mode of πος speech perfect and distinct, and easily pronounced clauses or at a breath; not, however, at the point of division, simple. like the fore-mentioned period, but altogether. And a clause is one subdivision of it. By a simple period, I mean one consisting of a single clause.
But neither the clauses nor the periods ought to 6. They be either curtailed or prolix; for their brevity often See causes the hearer to feel a hitch; since it needs must tailed. be, if while he is yet [in thought] hastening onward, that limit of termination which he conceives within himself happens to be thrown back by the speaker’s ceasing, that a kind of hitch, as it were, occurs, owing to the impulse backward. Those, however, which Nor pro are prolix cause the hearer to be left behind; just me as they who make the turn too far on the outside of the goal, for they don’t keep up with those walking with them®; and in a similar way, periods which are prolix grow into an oration, and are something like a desultory ode’. So that that occurs which Demvcritus, the Chian, joked Melanippides about, viz. that he produced desultory odes instead of antistrophes. “A man in framing a nuisance for others, frames one for himself; and long tedious odes are the greatest nuisance to him who produces them®;” for it is appropriate enough to hold such language as this respecting the framers of prolix clauses. But those which are brief in their clauses do not, in fact, become periods; therefore they draw on the hearer by fits and starts.
5 This line is found quoted by Lucian, as taken from a drama of Euripides, no longer extant, entitled Meleager.
ὁ Probably an English sergeant would have illustrated this by a column wheeling into line.
7 See the note on § 1 of this chapter.
® A neat parody this on Hesiod, Opp. et Ὁ. v. 263.
7. Style ot periods is either διῃρημένη oY ἀντι- κειμένη, 232 ARISTOTLE’S ἴβοοκ τί.
Of style which consists of periods, one species is merely divided [by disjunctives |, another has an antithesis. Simply divided, as, “1 have often felt surprised at those who convened the general assemblies and 5 established the gymnastic contests.” The style, however, which has antithesis, is that in which, in each clause, either there is one contrary put in conjunction with another, or the same is linked in connexion with contraries: as, ‘ They benefited both, as well those who remained behind, as those who joined the expedition; since they made acquisitions for the latter more than they possessed at home; while to the former they abandoned, in what remained at home, a full competence.” 'The ideas set in opposition are,—staying behind,—joining the expedition; competence,—more. [And in this sentence]: “So that both to those who wanted money, and to those who desired to enjoy it,” etc. Here enjoyment stands opposed to acquisition. And again: “It happens frequently in these cases, that while the prudent fal, the simple succeed.” —“ Forthwith, indeed, they claimed the prize of highest valour, and not long after they gained the sovereignty of the sea.””—“ That he sazled, indeed, through the main land, and marched across the sea; joining with a bridge the Hellespont, while he channelled through mount Athos.” Again: “That, citizens though they were by birth, they were yet deprived by law of their franchise in the eety.”—“ W hile some of them miserably perished, others were disgracefully preserved.” Again: “ That privately, indeed, he employed barbarian slaves; while ix public he allowed many of the alties to be in slavery:"— “ Hither they would possess it while alive, or leave τὲ behind when dead.” Again, the expression which some one made use of against Pitholaus and Lycophron in the court: “They sold you, indeed, when they were at home; but when they were come to us, they were themselves bought.”—For all these [antitheses | produce the fore-mentioned effect.
® “In hoc loco τὸ καὶ non tam copulandi, quam discernendi “im habet’’? Ernest. Lex. Tech.
cHapP. 1x.] RHETORIC. 233 And a style of this description is pleasing, because contraries are most easily apprehended, and, when set by each other’s side, they become still more easy,/ of apprehension: and because they bear a resemblance \ ik to a reasoning process; for the elenchus is an infer-| KX ence of contraries. Such, then, is antithests:—but ani3. Equé equipoise occurs if the clauses be equal; and allitera- pote tion, if each of the clauses have its extremities simi- σις. lar: and [this similarity] it needs must have either Alliteraat the beginning or ending; and the beginning al- 7°" _ ways has original words [similar!°]; but the ending, poiwors, either last syllables [which are similar], or inflections of the same word, or the same word itself. [Instances of alliteration | at the beginning, are as follow"!: ᾿ΑΤΓΡὸν yap ἔλαβεν "APT Sv παρ᾽ αὐτοῦ, For he received from him land untill’d.
Δωρητοί 7 ’EILEXovto, παράῤῥητοί τ᾽ ᾽ἜΠΕεσσιν By presents pleased, by words appeased.
And at the ending, thus: ᾿Ωήθησαν αὐτὸν παιδίον reroOKENAL, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτοῦ αἴτιον yeyo ΝΕΝΑΙ.
They thought that he was the father, but that there was a cause for it.
Ἔ» πλείσταις φρονΤΊΣΙ, καὶ ἐν ἐλαχίσταις ἐλπῖτΣΙ. Anxiety at the highest, hope at the lowest.
Inflections of the same word,—“ What! give hima brazen statue who did not deserve a brass farthing?” The same word,—“ In his life you spoke εἰ of him, 10 Τῇ you would produce alliteration at the commencement of a clause, you rust employ words which, in their original form and previously to any inflection, are similar; since in that situation, a similarity will fail of striking you which depends merely on one or two syllables at the end of the words, such as may be found to exist, in a greater or lesser degree, between ali nouns of the same declension, etc. (6. g. Latin nouns of the third declension ending in 0); at the conclusion, however, of a clause, a weaker and less striking similarity will suffice. Compare his jirst example with those following the words ἐπὶ τελευτῆς.
1 As no English words occur to me which will at once exe empliiy the alliteration, and prove a literal translation of the Greek, I have set down the original words as I find them, They have been given in Latin thus,—AGRum accepit LEG Rum ab ipso.
Same words may have antithesis, equipoise, and rhyme at once.
10. False antitheses, 1. Elegancies and approved beauties of style.
2. The fundamental principle is μάθηols.
' Metaphor produces this, 234 ARISTOTLE’S [Ξοοκ mr and now after his death you write ill.” Andona single syllable,—‘“ What ill would you have suffered, if you had witnessed an indolent man?”
And it is possible for the same words to possess, at the same time, all these; and for the same example to be both an antithesis, equipoised, and having rhyme. But the heads of periods have nearly been enumerated in my Rhetoric to Theodectes. Also there are false antitheses, such as Epicharmus was in the habit of making: as, “Once was I in their [country |; once was I among them.”
Whence are quoted the Elegancies and. approved Beauties of Style.
But as a detail of these subjects has been given, we must state whence the elegancies and approved. beauties [of style] are derived. Now the power of inventing them belongs, either to the man of high natural genius, or to one of talent chastened by discipline; but to exhibit the sources of them is the business of this system; wherefore, let us treat of, and fully enumerate them.
And let this be our fundamental prixciple: for the receiving information with ease, is naturally pleasing to 411}; and nouns are significant of something; so that all those nouns whatsoever which produce knowledge in the mind, are most pleasing. Now, the foreign expressions are unintelligible; and words of common use we already understand. But the metaphor in the highest degree produces this effect [ of iving pleasure]; for when the poet calls old age “stubble,” he produces in us a knowledge and in- 1 See this principle of pleasure stated in book i. ὁ. 11, § 23. Again, (book ii. c. 24, § 30,) refutative enthymems are preferred to confirmative on the same principle,—é:a τὸ συναγωγὴν ἐναντίων εἶναι ἐν MIKPQ cuir, x.! RHETORIC. 235 formation by means of a common genus”; for both are past their prime. Now, the similes of the poets also produce the same effect; on which account, should they be neatly managed, an elegance strikes you. For the simile, as has been remarked before*, is metaphor with the difference of the addition [of a particle denoting similitude |; on which account it is less pleasing, because more at length: and it does not assert that “this is that;” the mind therefore does not at all require it‘.
It cannot but be, then, both that the style and the arguments which render the act of information rapid, are elegant; on which account, neither are superficial arguments held in approbation; (for, by superficial, 1 mean such as are obvious to every one, and which require no search;) nor those which, when stated, are not understood®: but all those whatsoever which are apprehended, either simultaneously with their being uttered, (supposing even that no previous knowledge of them existed,) or by which the intellect is a little left behind; for there accrues, as it were, a piece of information; in the two former cases, however, none.
As far, then, as respects the meaning of what is said, reasonings of this description are approved; but 3. and ‘tie produee rapid μά- θησις are elegant.
5. The expression must be as to the expression, if they be worded (in figure) antithetiantithetically®; as, “deeming the common peace of ¢al.
2 “ By the genus; that is, where the common quality which constitutes the likeness immediately occurs,” etc. Twining. This metaphor, according to the distinction of the Poetic, would be called ἀπ᾽ εἰδοῦς ἐπὶ eldos—from one species of things decayed to another.
3 In the fourth chapter of this book.
‘ For the mind, hurrying on to obtain further information respecting the object in question, without pausing to ascertain what it is like or equal to, desires only to know what it. really ts. See chap. 4, ὁ lL.
5 The case with these two descriptions of argument is the same as with the γλῶτται and κύρια ὀνόματα respectively. With this passage compare book ii. c. 24, § 30.
6 The consideration of ἀστεῖα having been ranged under the heads of their διάνοια and λέξις, he proceeds here to subdivide his discussion οὗ λέξις, in reference to its whole sentences, Three things to be aimed at: metaphor, antithesis, personification.
7. Metaphors are fourfold: analogical ones the best.
the rest, a very war to their individual interests:” here “war” is opposed to “ peace;” and (in single words) if they possess metaphor, and this neither farfetched, for it will be difficult to view it in connexion; nor superficial, for it produces no effect: and, moreover, if they place the object before your eyes; for it needs must be, that one sees more clearly what is actually in the course of being done, than what is about to be. We ought then to aim at three things, metaphor, antithesis, and personification’.
But of metaphor, which is fourfold,’ that species is in the highest degree approved which is constructed on similar ratios; just as Pericles said, “that the youth which had perished in the war, had so vanished from the city, as if one were to take the spring from the year’.” And Leptines, speaking of the Lacedamonians, “ that he would do all in his power to prevent Greece from being deprived of an eye.” And Cephisodotus, when Chares was eager to present the accounts about the Olynthiac war, grew nettled, and said, “ Now that he has got the populace with their necks in a halter, he is endeavouring to present his accounts.” Again, when he once was exhorting the Athenians, as they were going for provisions, to go to Eubcea for them, he said, ‘‘ the decree of Miltiades should go forth to the expedition.” And Iphicrates, when the Athenians had made a league with Epidaurus and the neighbourhood of the coast, was indignant, and exclaimed that, “of themselves they had (i. 6. its figure, σχήμα,) or its single words, (i. 6. what is usually called trope).
7 From the variety of words by which. ἐνέργεια has been rendered, “* personification’? has been selected, as approaching the nearest to the correspondent expression, πρὸ ὀμμάτων. The effect is produced by representing inanimate objects as the agents in any thing: thus, “‘ pontem indignatus Araxes.” See the next chapter.
6 A metaphorical word is a word transferred from its proper sense, either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from one species to another, or in the way of analogy. Poet. xxi. transl. by Twining. See chap. 2, § 14, seq.
® See book i, 7, § 84. Herodotus puts a similar expression in the mouth of Gelon, book vii. 162.
ofAR. χα RHETORIC. 237 cut off the very provision of the war.” And Pitho- Various laus called [the state yacht] Paralus, “the mace of "stances the populace;” and Sestus, “ the corn-chest of the proved Pirzus.” And Pericles bade them away with gina, αν ~~ “the eye-sore of the Pireus.” And Meerocles said, ‘that he was no more a knave than the other,” naming some good sort of man; “since that person indeed played the rogue at the rate of. thirty per cent., himself however merely at ten per cent. usury.” And that iambie verse of Anaxandrides on his daughters, who were long in getting married: ‘The virgins have forfeited the nuptial recognisance'!.” And that saying of Polyeuctus about one Speusippus, who was struck by apoplexy, “that he was unable to keep quiet, bound as he was by fortune in a complete pillory of a disease.” Cephisodotus, too, used to call _the triremes, “ painted corn-mills:” as did the Cynic Diogenes the taverns, ‘the public tables? of Athens.” /Esion, too, used the expression, “pouring out the city into Sicily,” (for this is metaphorical, and sets the object before the eyes,) “so that all Greece ezclaimed;” and this too is in a certain way a metaphor, and personifies. And as Cephisodotus bade them be 10 The highest rate of interest (τόκος) permitted among the Greeks appears to have been one third of the principal (ἐπίτριτος); the lowest rate which was usual was one tenth merely of the principal (ἐπιδέκατος): so that Mcrocles was less a villain than this ἐπιεικὴς, in the same ratio in which ten per cent. was less usurious than three and thirty. The metaphor, however, is stated by some as resulting from the come parison of the ratio of chara:ter to the ratio of usury; and by others, from the application of the general word, πονηρεύεσθαι, to the transactions of usurers in particular. It will be observed, that in translating ἐπίτριτος, the round numbers have been taken.
1! Addison, too, classes certain of his fair readers (though certainly differently circumstanced from the daughters of Anaxandrides) under the metaphorical appellation of “‘ demurrers,” borrowed from the English legal nomenclature. See Spectator, No. 89.
12 Φειδίτια, the public tables of Lacedemon, remarkable for their plainness and frugality: so that, in saying that the only φειδίτια of Athens were its taverns, Diogenes conveyed a most. bitter sarcasm against the manners of its citizens, e on their guard, “ lest they rendered their very popular assemblies so many rows;’”’ just as Isocrates, also, | used the expression | of persons “ making a row in the general convention.” And as in the funeral speech [of Lycias], “ there was reason for Greece to shear her locks over the grave of those who fell at Salamis, since her liberty had been buried jointly with their valour:” for had he said that ‘‘ there was reason she should weep, her liberty having been buried with them;” it would indeed have been a metaphor, and have given personification; but the words, “their valour,” “her liberty,” convey a kind of antithesis. And, as Iphicrates said, ‘‘ The path of my arguments is through the midst of the actions of Chares:” the metaphor here is on similar ratios, and the expression, ‘‘ through the midst,” produces personification. Also the saying, ‘‘ that he challenged dangers to be his allies against dangers,” is both a personification and a metaphor. And Lycoleon, pleading for Chabrias, said, “ [ What, not pardon him] out of a respect for the suppliancy'* of his brazen statue:” for in the then crisis it was a metaphor, but not always; but the personification [was perpetual]; for pending his trial the statue acts as suppliant, the inanimate as an animated object,—‘ that memento of the exploits of the state.” Again, “ Making it their study, by every means, to think meanly;” [ this is metaphorical, | since study is with a view to advance [not to diminish }.
And the expression that “ God has kindled the intellect as a light in the soul;” for both in a certain sense illuminate.—“ For we put no period to our wars, but put them off;” since both putting off, and a peace of 13 Chabrias seems to have been the first who ordered his troops to assume a kneeling position in receiving the charge of an enemy: at the time when he adopted this manceuvre, he headed some Athenian troops auxiliary to the Beotians, and completely succeeded in repulsing the forces of Agesilaus. This improvement in tactics seems to have been so favourably received, that statues were decreed him to be erected in the attitude of kneeling. Ὁ δὲ Χαβρίας πολλῶν αὐτῷῴ πεπραγμένων κατὰ πόλεμον, ἐπὶ τούτῳ μάλιστα ἐσημνεύετο τῷ στρατηγύματι, καὶ τὰς ὑπὸ τοῦ δήμου δοθείσας αὐτῷ καθίστανεν ἐχούσας τοῦτο τὸ σχῆμα Diodorus Siculus, 15.
ταν CHAP XI.] | RHETORIC. 239 this description, are alike things of the future. And again, the declaring “that a truce was a trophy more splendid than those won in war; since the latter was the result of a trivial occurrence or a single accident, the former were the result of the whole tenour of the war;” for both [agree in being] indications of victory. And, that “states pay a heavy punishment to the censure of mankind;” for punishment is a sort of hurt consonant to justice "4, Thus, then, it has been stated that the elegancies result from metaphor constructed on similar ratios, and from personification.
Of Personification.
this effect results. I mean, i. that those expres- ae sions which represent the object as in action, do all the object of them produce the setting before the eyes: for in- — stance, the saying of “a good man,” that he is “a 2. cube!,” 15 ἃ metaphor; for both are perfect; but this does not personify: whereas the speaking of one as “having his prime yet blooming,” is a personification.
And this, “but you just as a thing let loose,” is a personification. And [in the line] “ Then the Greeks springing forth with their feet?;—” the expression, “springing,” is both a personification and a metaphor, for it expresses rapidity. Again, as Homer has in ‘4 We cannot forbear adding to this long catalogue the metaphor used by Herodotus, in speaking of the scheme for the defence of Peloponnesus, at the time of the Persian invasion, by throwing a wall across the Isthmus: his words are, that even many cloaks of walls would be insufficient;—ei καὶ “πολλοὶ τειχέων KIOQNES ἧσαν ἐληλαμένοι, x.T. ‘3 —_— * See the expression, Eth. Nich. book i. ο. 10.
3 Bee Eurip. Iph. in Aul. 80.
3. Metaphors produce it.
4. And similes, 5. Metaphors to produce it must be appropriate, yet not obvious.
many places employed it, the putting inanimate things as animate, by means of a metaphor; and in all from their producing personification, they are approved; as in these instances?: ** Back to the plain still roll’d the shameless stone.” Again, “The arrow flew.” And, “ Eager to wing its way.” And, | * Deep fix’d in earth, eager their blood to drain,” And, ** Right through his breast th’ zmpetuous weapon sped.”
For in all these instances, the objects, from their being animated, appear personified; for the expressions, shamelessness, and eagerness, and the rest, are personifications. These, however, has he appended by means of the metaphor from analogy: for as the stone is to Sisyphus, so is he who is insensible of shame, to the object in regard to which he is so insensible. He does this, too, in his approved similes, in the case of inanimate objects; as, “The waves behind impel the waves before, Wide rolling, foaming high, and tumbling to the shore*.”’ for he produces every thing in life and action. But. personification is an imitation [of nature δ].