But it is fitting to draw your metaphors, as has been stated, from terms which are appropriate and not obvious; just as in philosophy, also, it is the privilege of one who conjectures happily, to discern the point of similitude®; as when Archytas observes, “that an arbitrator and an altar are the same,” since 8 These passages severally stand as follows: (1.) Od. xi 597. (2.) Il. xiii, 587. (3.) Il. iv. 126. (4.) Il. xi. 573.
* Pope’s translation, Il. xiii. (of the original), line 799.
5 And, if an imitation, necessarily aa See this principle of pleasure stated, book i. c. 11, ὁ 23 ὁ In speaking of the fable, he attributed this faculty ot catching such features of resemblance as, without immediately striking, are yet appropriate (οἵκεια μὴ φάνερα), to” those of a philosophic turn of mind:—7ré ὅμοιον ὁ ὁρᾷν, ὅπερ ῥᾷόν ἐστιν ἐκ φιλοσοφίας, Lib. ii, cap. 20, § 7.
CHAP. ΧΙ.] RHETORIC. 241 to both does the party who has been wronged fly for refuge. Or if one were to say, “that an anchor and a pot-hanger were the same;” for both are somewhat the same, but they differ in the circumstance of suspending from above and below. Again, the expression, “the states have been levelled,” is the same in objects widely differing, equality both in power and in superficies.
Also the greatest number of elegancies arise from ᾿ metaphor, and from additionally deceiving the hearer’; for the point becomes more clear that he has learnt something, from the meaning being the opposite [of what it was supposed ], and the mind seems to say, “ How true is this! I however was wrong.” And the elegancies of proverbial expressions arise from one’s meaning not what he says; for instance, the words of Stesichorus, that “the grasshoppers shall chirp on the ground®.” Also ideas neatly put enigmatically, are for the same reason pleasing; for there is an acquisition of knowledge, and a metaphor is introduced. Again, that embellishment which Theodorus calls, “saying out-of-the-way things;” _ this, however, occurs when the sentiment is paradoxical, and (as he has it) does not square with previous opinion’; just on the same principle as in jokes, words submitted to a slight change. An effect which those jests also produce, which depend on the change 7 Besides the ornament of metaphor, by leading the hearer, throughout the sentence, to expect something very different from what you really mean, and undeceiving him only by the last word; e. g. ‘‘Quid hine abest nisi res et virtus!” Cic. de Orat. ii. 70. Here you expect a panegyric; the last word converts the whole into reproach. Of this description, too, are the following lines of Pope:— * Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes tea!”? Rape of the Lock, iil. 7.
The precept may be further illustrated by Porson’s insidious commendation of Blackmore’s poetry:—‘“‘ He will be read wren Homer and Milton are forgotten,—but not till then.”’
® Probably the English word humour would best designwa this quaintness of Theodorus.
R 6. They deceive the hearers agree@- ably.
Paradoxes.
Jests which are παρ᾽ ὑπό νοιαν.
7 Paw, 242 ARISTOTLE’S [Book πὶ of a letter, for they deceive [the hearer’s anticipation |: it happens also in metre; for it terminates not in the way in which the hearer supposed; thus, ἔστειχε δ᾽ ἔχων ὑπὸ ποσσὶ χίμετλα!"!
He proceeded wearing under his feet—chilblains ©. Whereas the hearer was imagining that “ sandals,” (πέδιλα), would be the word!!. This, however, as soon as it is uttered, ought to be clear. But these changes of a letter cause the speaker to say, not what the word expresses, but what its inversion signifies: as in the jest of Theodorus, on Nicon the lyrist, “Thee did a Thracian —” (Oparrn); for what. he pretends to say is, “ It annoys (Θράττει) you!?,” and deceives the audience; wherefore to one who has caught it, the joke is pleasing; since if one is not aware that he is a Thracian, it will not appear to be a beauty. Again, the expression, you wish him περσαι (i. 6. either ἐο side with Persia—to ruin him }, Both meanings, however, should be in point, and so also in the case of the elegancies; thus the saying, “ The sovereignty (ἀρχὴ) of the sea, was not the beginning (ἀρχὴ) of evils to the Athenians; since it was a gain to them.” Or, as Isocrates says, “ that its sovereignty (ἀρχὴ) was to the city a beginning © See note 1, at p. 88, of Carrington’s translation of Aristophanes’ Plutus; where a similar surprise arises from the use of ἔπινες instead of expivns.
11 This is sometimes aptly enough termed παρὰ προσδοκίαν, ba fling the expectation.
12 Nicon, it seems, was the son of a Thracian slave; and’ Theodorus, conveniently mistaking the word OpérrH for ΘράττεΙ, takes an opportunity of taunting him with his low birth. Θράττω, probably contracted from ταράττω. Vid. Blomfield in Aéschy}. Prom. Vinct. 649. There are on record two excellent replies to taunts of this nature; one made by Mnestheus, son of Iphicrates, who declared that he esteemed his mother above his father,—‘‘ Nam Pater, quantum in se fuit, Thracem me genuit: contra ea, mater Atheniensem;” (Corn. Nep. Iphic. 3;) where it should be observed, that Rut-. gersius, for contra ea mater, proposes to read cum Thraca mawr. The other is attributed to Timotheus, who having the condition of his mother as a Thracian slave thrown out rea him as a reproach, replied, “ But to her I owe it that I Conon’s son.” Atheneus, lib. xii CHAP. Xx.y RHETORIC. 243 (ἀρχὴ) of evils.” For in either acceptation, that in stated which one did not imagine he would say; and that it is true, is acknowledged. For to assert that a beginning is a beginning, shows no great wisdom; but he repeats [the word ἀρχὴ], not in this sense, but differently; and he does not repeat the same ἀρχὴ which he first said, but in a different sense. And in all these cases, if one introduce the term appropriately under an equivocation or metaphor, then there is wit; for instance, there is no bearing Baring}: here the speaker denies the correspondence of signification, but appropriately enough, if {the person alluded to] be disagreeable.” Again, * You cannot become more a stranger [ξένος], than becomes you as a guest [ξένος], or not in a greater degree than you ought, which is the same; and “ it becomes not a stranger [£évoc] always to be a guest Γξένος 1. For the meanings here also are different. The same, too, is that commended saying of Anaxandrides, “It is honourable to die before doing aught worthy death;” for it is the same as saying, “It is worthy a man to die when he is not worthy to suffer death;” or, “ It is worthy a man to die when he is not worthy [the punishment] of death; or, when he has not committed acts worthy that punishment.” Now the form of the diction of these sentences is the same; but in proportion as [the idea] happens to be enunciated in fewer words and with antithesis, in the same proportion is it more approved. And the reason is, that the information becomes by means of the antithesis, fuller; by means of brevity, more rapid. Such sentiments ought always to have either some one of whom they are said, or happiness of expression (if what you say [would appear] earnest, and not mere idle remark); for it is possible to have one of those qualities without the other: for instance, “You ought to die without having committed an error;” [the sentiment is just enough], but [the eapression] is not elegant: “ A deserving man should 13 So, too, the Latins, Lepidus non lepidus.
8.
> 10. There should be some person to whom they must apply.
marry a deserving woman;” but this is not elegant'*; but if it possess both qualities at the same time, as “ It is worthy a man to die while he is not worthy of suffering death.” But in proportion as a sentence possesses the greater number of these ornaments, in the same proportion does it appear more elegant; if, for instance, the words be metaphors, and metaphors of such a species, and if there be antithesis, and equipoise of clauses, and if it have personification.
Similes also, as has been uniformly stated in the forégoing, are in some way approved metaphors; for they always are expressed in two terms, like the analogical metaphor; thus, “the shield,” we say, “is the cup of Mars;” the bow, “ἃ stringless lyre.” Thus, then, persons express the metaphor not unaccompanied; whereas the calling a bow, “a lyre;” οἱ a shield “a cup,” is without accompanying explan- . ation '®, And on this principle men construct their similes; for instance, that of a flute-player to an ape, and of a near-sighted person to a sputtering» 18. lamp; for both contract themselves. But the excellence will exist when there is a metaphor; for you may represent by a simile the shield as “ the cup of Mars,” and a ruin as “the rags of a house;” and the saying of Niceratus, that, ‘he was himself a Philoctetes bitten by Pratys,” as Thrasymachus drew the simile when he saw Niceratus, who had been beaten by Pratys in a contest of rhapsodists!’, with his hair 14 As far as the expression is concerned, this instance seems to possess the necessary elegance; but it is deficient in the second requisite, viz. τὸ πρὸς ὃν λέγεται.
15 The metaphor constructed on similar ratios (κατ᾽ ἀναλοyiav) is here alluded to: see chap. 10, ὁ 7.
16 In the Poetic, he says that, in the case of the analogical metaphor, ““ sometimes the proper term is also introduced, besides its relative term;’’ and this, with a view to guard the metaphor from any incidrntal harshness or obscurity: with such an adjunct, the me’uphor ceases to be ἁπλοῦς; 6, δ. φιάλη “Apeos—thus expressed, the metaphor is οὐχ ἁπλοῦς; but if stated simply φιάλη, it is ἁπλοῦς, See Twining, notes 184, 189, on the Poetic.
17 With a view to eluciaate the simile of Thrasymachus, it j / cHar. xt.] RHETORIC. 245 long and disordered, and his person still neglected. In which points, if they be not neatly managed, the poets most frequently get hissed off, even should they in other respects stand high. I mean when the poet replies [to his particle of similitude thus], “Like parsley he has crooked legs.”—“ Like Philammon on the bench, struggling with the ball” [or, with Corycus}. And all such expressions are similes; but that similes are metaphors has frequently been stated.
Proverbs also are metaphors from species to species: thus if any one, as though likely to experience a benefit, should himself introduce a measure and afterwards suffer loss from it, then one exclaims, “As the Carpathian fetched the hare'*!” for both parties have experienced the thing in point. Now the sources whence these elegancies are deduced, and the cause why [they are pleasing], has nearly been told you.
Again, hyperboles which are recognised are metaphors; as that about a person with a black eye: “ You would have thought him a basket of mulberries;” for the part beneath the eye is somewhat suffused with blood: but this is greatly forced. But the [simile with the expression of similitude ] just as, so and so, is hyperbole, differing merely in the diction. “Like Philammon on the bench struggling with the ball,” [becomes hyperbole thus;] “ You would have thought he was Philammon struggling with the ball.” ‘“‘ Like parsley he has crooked legs,” [thus arranged becomes an hyperbole;] “1 thought not that he had legs, but parsley stalks, so crooked were they.” But hyperboles suit with the temperament of the young, for they evince a vehemence of has been conjectured that the story of Philoctetes might have been the subject of this rhapscdical declamation.
18 The island of Carpathus being destitute of hares, one of the inhabitants brought over some of these animals, which proved so fatally prolific as to consume all the crops in the island; and the Carpathians became more anxious to extirpate them than they had ever been for their introduction, 14, And proverbs also.
15. So toa are hyperboles.
lL. Different styles are suitable to each sort oforatory.
2. The written style is most precise; that of disputation most declamatory, and is of two kinds, ἠθικὴ, παβῃτι- Km, temper; (on which account the angry most frequently utter them; [thus Achilles in his wrath exclaims, | Though bribes were heap’d on bribes, in number more Than dust in fields, or sands along the shore, Atrides’ daughter never shall be led, An ill-match’d consort to Achilles’ bed; Like golden Venus though she charm’d the heart, Or vied with Pallas in the works of art. Pore.
The Attic rhetoricians, too, particularly employ this figure;) on which account for a man in advanced life to utter them is bad taste.
That a distinet Style is appropriate to each Species of Rhetorre.
NEITHER ought it to escape us, that to each kind of rhetoric is adapted a peculiar style; for neither are the style which is adapted to writing and that of disputation the same, nor the style of deliberative and that of judicial rhetoric. But it is necessary to be acquainted with both [the first and the second}: for the one consists in knowing the purity of language; the other in the not being obliged to sit mute, if one wish to communicate any thing to others; the very predicament in which they who know not how to write are placed. But the style of writing is the most precise: that of disputation partakes more of declamation; and of it there are two species, the one conveys the impress of character, the other of feeling. And hence actors choose this description of drama, and the poets this sort [of actors]. But poets fit for perusal are carried about with us, like Chceremon, for he is as nicely finished as a rhetorician; and, of the Dithyrambic poets, Licymnius.
Thus also, on comparing speeches together, these CHAP. XIte]} RHETORI. 247 adapted to writing appear jejune when delivered at disputations; while those of the declaimers, excellent as they were when delivered, seem mere commonplace in the closet; and the reason is, that in disputation [ these things] are appropriate enough. On which account, compositions framed for declamation, inasmuch as, when abridged of their declamation, they do omission of connectives, and frequent repetitions, in a written style are justly exploded; yet in the style of disputation even the rhetoricians employ them, for they are adapted to declamation. Yet it is necessary 3.
in repeating the same thing to vary the expression; which indeed opens a way, as it were, to declamation: [e. g.] “This is he who robbed you; this is he who defrauded you; this is he who at last endeavoured to betray you.” Just as Philemon the actor used to do in the “ Gerontomania” of Anaxandrides, when Rhadamanthus and Palamedes speak; and in the opening scene of the “ Devotees” [in the recurrence of | the word J. For if one does not give these passages with declamatior, it becomes [a case in point with the proverb | “ Stiff as one carrying a beam.” And so also where connectives are wanting, “I came, I met, I besought him;” for you needs must give it with declamation, and not, as though simply saying one thing, enunciate it with the same manner and tone. ‘There is, moreover, a certain peculiarity which omissions of connectives possess; for it strikes one that, in an equal length of time, many things have been stated; for the connective makes many, one; so that if it be taken away, it is evident that on the contrary one will be many. It possesses, then, amplification; “I eame, I conversed with, I besought,” being many,— “ἢ seems to overlook all I have said, all I now say.” Homer is desirous of producing this effect in the lines: “ Three ships with Nireus sought the ‘Trojan shore, Nireus, whom Aglae to Charopus bore, /“éreus, in faultless shape',’’ etc. Pore.
‘ Tliad, ii. 67 Declamatory compositions whenread not produce their effect, appear ridiculous: thus, the appear ta culous, liberative style like sketching, and not accurate. Judicial style more precise, Epideictic style more suited to writing. The judicial next, 6. Conelusion of thesecond division, acil. λέξις, For of whom a great deal is said, that man must needs be spoken of frequently; and therefore if one be spoken of frequently, it appears that a great deal has been said of him. So that the poet mentioning him only once, by help of this sophism amplifies the character, and has excited a recolleetion of him, though he no where subsequently mentions him.
Now the deliberative style is exactly like sketching; for in proportion as the erowd is larger, the view is taken from a greater distance; on which account, in the one as well as in the other, productions of an exquisite finish are superfluous, and look worse than others. But the judicial is a thing of greater nicety: and in a still higher degree where it is before a single judge; for least of all is this within the reach of rhetorical artifice; since the peculiar points of the case are more easily concentrated to the view, than what is merely external: and the heat of disputation is out of the question, so that the decision is fair and clear. And on this account the same speakers are not approved in all these kinds; but where there is most of declamation, there least of all is accuracy: this, however, is the case where power of voice is requisite, and particularly if a considerable power.
The demonstrative style, however, is most adapted to writing; for its purpose is perusal: second to it [in this adaptation ] is the judicial.
But to draw any further distinctions on the subject of style, that it ought to be pleasing and magnificent, is superfluous: for why should it be such rather than temperate and liberal, or if there be any other moral virtue? For that the foregoing rules will cause it to be pleasing is manifest, if indeed excellence of style has been correctly defined:—for with a view to what must it be, [according to our definition, | “ clear and not mean, but.in good taste?” For should it become prosing, it is no longer clear, neither if it should be too concise. But it is plain that the mean is appropriate. And the foregoing precepts will cause its being pleasing, should the CHAP. XII.] RHETORIC, 249 ordinary expressions have been judiciously blended with the foreign, and should rhythm [not be wanting], and the persuasive influence resulting from good taste.
The subject of style has then been treated”, as well generally, respecting all the species of rhetoric, as particularly, respecting each. But it yet remains to treat of arranyement.
Of the Parts of a Speech.
Tue parts of a speech are two; for it is necessary to state the case about which it is, and to prove it. Wherefore for one, after stating, not to prove it, or to proceed to prove it without a previous statement, is out of the question: for whoever proves, proves something; and he who makes a previous statement, makes such statement with a view to subsequently proving it. And of these parts, the one is the statement, the other the proof; just as though! one were to make a division into problem and demonstration. But the divisions which they now usually make are ridiculous; for narration is a kind of peculiarity to judicial speeches alone; for how can there, in demonstrative and deliberative speeches, be any narration such as they speak of, or any reply, confutation of an adversary, or any peroration of points selected for display of character?
But exordium, contrast of argument, and recapitulation”, do then only occur in deliberative speeches 2 Thus ends the second branch of the grand division of the work;-πίστις--λέξις---τάξις. See the last note on book ii.
1 That is, to adopt the language of mathematicians, the statement corresponds to their problem, the proof to their demonstration. It will readily be observed that πίστις is here used ἴῃ a sense different from that which it has hitherto preserved.
2 Est et illud repetendi genus quod semel proposita iterat et dividit -— 1. Two parts of 8 speech, 2. Statement. Proof.
8. Divisions ~ made by other writers censured, when an altercation happens; for, considered as accusation and defence, they frequently [admit these branches], but not in their character of a piece of Perora- advice. But the peroration, moreover, is not an esmon ner sential of every judicial; for instance, if the speech ys necessary. be a short one, or the case easy to be remembered. For it is usual to detract only from what is prolix. The necessary divisions, then, are the statement and the proof’. 4, Enu- The essential divisions then are these; but de cpio greatest number are, exordium, statement, proof, ofthem, peroration. The confutation of an adversary belongs to the proof; and the contrast of arguments is an amplification of one’s own, so as to be a kind of branch of the proof; for one who does this proves something: but not so either exordium or peroration; but [the latter] refreshes the recollection. 5. Nofur- But should one draw distinctions with regard to — these, that will be the case which the followers of to be Theodorus used to do, there will be a narration disdrawn. —_ tinct from post-narration, and pre-narration, together with refutation, and post-refutation. But the writer should affix a title only after marking out a distinct species and difference‘, otherwise it becomes mere emptiness and trifling; just like Licymnius, who. in his treatise gives the titles, irruption—digrestzon— ramifications, ete.
Iphitus et Pelias mecum; quorum Iphitus eva Jam gravior, Pelias et vulnere tardus Ulixi. . Aeneid, ii 435. ἜΠΑΝΟΔΟΣ dicitur Greece, nostri regressionem vocant. Quintil. ix. 3, 36—apud Ern. Lex. Techn.
3 It should be carefully borne in mind, that Aristotle admits only these two branches as essential to every speech. His reasons for superadding exordium and peroration will be developed in the sequel.
4 Without such a restraint, a rhetorician may go on ad im faitum drawing distincticns where no difference exists.
CHAP. XIV>] RHETORIC. 251 Of the Exordium, Now the exordium is the commencement of the 1. The speech; which in poetry is the prologue, and in the ΠΝ performances on the pipe, the prelude: for these are the proall commencements, and, as it were, an opening of logue and the way for what is to succeed. hae “i lude. The prelude, then, corresponds to the exordium of Prowmidemonstrative speeches; for the performers on the pit. ° °.. pideictic pipe, using as a prelude any piece whatever which oratory they are able to execute with skill, connect the whole resembles by an inserted passage: and so in demonstrative bese ated speeches ought we to write; for the speaker ought, connected after stating whatever he lists}, straightway to em- with the ploy the insertion, and link it [to the body of the Pieee by speech]. Which indeed all do, having as their σιμον.
model the exordium of the Helen of Isocrates: for #sthe ' there exists no very near connexion between Helen paced, and the artifices of sophists”. At the same time, if the exordium be out of the way of the subject, there is this advantage, that the whole speech is not of one aniform character. But the exordia of demonstrative 2. The speeches are derived from praise, or from blame, be σαν (like Gorgias in the Olympic oration,—“ Men wor- derived thy, O Greeks, of admiration among many;” for he from, es ae either of is eulogizing those who instituted the general assem- iho three blies: Isocrates, however, blames them, ‘“ because sorts of they distinguish by prizes the excellencies of person, °T#t°TYwhile for those who are wise they propose no reward;”) and thirdly, from suggesting advice; for in- 3. stance, “‘—because it is fitting to honour the good,” on that account [the orator] himself also speaks the praises of Aristides, or such characters as neither enjoy reputation, nor are worthless, but as many as, though they be excellent persons, are obscure; just 1 There is, in demonstrative rhetoric, no limitation as to the source whence the exordium is to be derived. 3 In a reprehension of which this exordium is employed.
δ, The exordium of judicial oratory resembles the prologue of a play. 6. It must therefore declare the object of the rpeech, 252 ARISTOTLE’S {BOOK If.
as was Paris, the son of Priam: for thus the orator - conveys advice. Again [we may borrow demonstrative exordia| from those proper to judicial rhetoric, i.e. from appeals to the auditor, in case the speech be: respecting any thing revolting to opinion, or difficult, or already noised abroad among many, so as to obtain his pardon: as Cheerilus begins, “ Now after every thing has become public.”
The exordia, then, of demonstrative rhetoric arise from these sources,—from praise, blame, exhortation, dissuasion, and appeals to the hearers. ‘The inserted connective clauses may be either foreign or appropriate to the subject.
With regard to the exordia of judicial rhetoric, we must assume that they are equivalent to the opening scenes of dramas, and the exordia of epic poems; for the commencement of dithyrambic poetry resembles demonstrative exordia,—‘‘on account of thee, thy gifts, thy spoils.” But in the drama, and in epic poetry, the commencement is an intimation of the subject, that the hearer may foresee what the story is about, and that his mind may not be in suspense; for whatever is indeterminate bewilders us. He then who puts, as it were, into the hand the beginning of the clue, causes him who holds it to follow on the story. On this account we have,— ** Sing, muse, the wrath,” etc. “The man, Ὁ muse, resound,” etc.
“This too declare; from Asia’s coasts afar, How upon Europe burst the mighty war.”
And the tragedians give some insight into the plot of the drama, if not forthwith, as Euripides does, yet they give it some where at least in the opening scene; just as also does Sophocles;—‘ Polybus was my father?!” And comedy in the same way. ‘The most necessary business of the exordium, and this is peculiar to it, is to throw some light on the end for the sake of which the speech is made. For which very reason, if this be evident, and the case a brief one, 3% Qidipus Tyr. 774.
CHAP. XIV. ] RHETORIC. 253 we need not employ an exordium. ‘The other species which speakers employ are correctives, and general: these are, however, deduced from 1. the speaker himself; 2. his hearer; 3. the subject; 4. and from the adversary. Every thing whatsoever which refers to the doing away or the casting an aspersion of character, has a relation to one’s self or the adversary. But these things are not done exactly in the same way: for by one speaking on a defence, whatever tends to aspersion of character should be put first; but by one who is laying an accusation, in his peroration. And the reason why is not indistinct; for it is necessary that one who is making a defence, when he is about to introduce himself, should sweep away every stumblingblock; so that the prepossession against you must first be removed: by him, however, who raises the unfavourable impression, let it be raised in winding up, in order that the judges may the rather recollect it. The correctives, however, which refer to the hearer, are drawn out of conciliating his good will, and inflaming him with anger. and occasionally from attracting his attention, or the reverse; for it is not at all times convenient to render him attentive, for which reason many endeavour to induce them to laughter.
But all these will conduce to tractability [on the judge’s part |, if one wishes it, as does also the showing one’s self a person of character; for to such do people the rather give heed. But men are attentive to objects of importance, of a peculiar description, or deserving admiration, or pleasing. Hence we ought to throw in a hint that the speech is concerning subjects of this nature. But if you would have them not attentive, hint that the matter is trifling, concerns them not, or is disgusting. But it ought not to escape our observation, that the whole of this is foreign to the subject; for they are addressed to a hearer of sorry 4 Ιατρεύματα, a sort of antidotes to ennui and listlessness of the auditory, which are literally so general (κοινὰ) as not only to be unlimited to the exordia of either branch of rhetoric, but as to admit of being introduced at will into any part of the speech. See ᾧ 9.
7. Other exordia are an antidote to weariness, i, latpev- ατΤα. efutation of calumny or its opposite relates to plaintiff or defendant, li, ἐκ τοῦ ἀκροατοῦ, excitement of the hearer; attracting his attention, or - the reverse, 8. All these cints owever are extraneous to the subject.
9. Awakening the attention is common to all parts of a speech.
.
Those who have the worst side employ exordia.
taste, and one who lends an ear to points foreign to the subject; for if the hearer be not of this character, there is no need of exordium, except so far as to state the matter summarily, that, like a body, it may have a head.