IV.—1. He now defines τὸ φιλεῖν, τὸ βούλεσθαί τινι, ἃ οἴεται ἀγαθὰ, ἐκείνου ἕνεκα, ἀλλὰ μὴ αὑτοῦ, καὶ τὸ κατὰ δύναμιν πρακτικὸν εἶναι τούτων. Φίλος δ᾽ ἐστὶν ὁ φιλῶν καὶ ἀντιφιλούμενος. So it follows, φίλον εἶναι τὸν συνηδόμενον τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς, καὶ συναλγοῦντα τοῖς λυπηροῖς, μὴ διὰ τὶ ἕτερον, ἀλλὰ δέ ἐκεῖνον.
After enumerating τοὺς φιλοῦντας καὶ μισοῦντας, Aristotle observes, ποιητικὰ ἔχθρας, ὀργὴ, ἐπηρεασμὸς, διαβολή.
81, ᾿Ὀργὴ μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἐκ τῶν πρὸς ¢ αὐτόν" ἔχθρα δὲ καὶ ἄνευ τοῦ πρὸς αὑτόν" and ἡ μὲν ὀργὴ det πρὸς τὰ καθ᾽ ἕκαστα' τὸ δὲ μῖσος καὶ πρὸς τὰ γένη And all λυπηρὰ are αἰσθητὰ, but τὰ μάλιστα κακὰ, ἥκιστα αἰσθητὰ, as ἀδικία and ἀφροσύνη.
V. --Ἱ. Φόβος is λύπη τις ἣ ταραχὴ ἐκ φαντασίας μέλλοντος κακοῦ ἣ φθαρτικοῦ, ἣ 7 λυπηροῦ" and φοβερὰ, ὅσα φαίνεται δύναμιν ἔχειν μεγάλην τοῦ φθείρειν, ἣ βλάπτειν βλάβας εἰς λύπην μεγά-Any συντεινούσαςο.
16. After enumerating the feelings and objects of fear, Aristotle remarks of confidence, τό τε θάρσος ἐναντίον τῷ φόβῳ, καὶ τὸ θαῤῥαλέον τῷ φοβερῷ" ὥστε μετὰ φαντασίας ἡ ἐλπὶς τῶν “σωτηρίων, ὡς ἐγγὺς ὄντων" τῶν δὲ φοβερῶν ἢ μὴ ὄντων, ἣ πόῤῥω ὄντων.
ΥΙ.---2, Αἰσχύνη is λύπη τις καὶ ταραχὴ περὶ τὰ εἰς ἀδοξίαν φαινόμενα φέρειν τῶν κακῶν, ἢ παρόντων, ἢ γεγονότων, ἣ μεὰ-λόντων. But Hai ay: ὀλιγωρία τις καὶ ἀπάθεια περὶ τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτα.
VIL. Aristotle detines χάρις, καθ᾽ ἣν ὁ ὁ ἔχων λέγεται χάριν Ee - OF ARISTOTLE S RHETORIC, 395 ὑτσευργεῖν τῷ δεομένῳ, μὴ ἀντὶ τινὺὴς, μηδ᾽ ἵνα τι abry τῳ ὑπουργοῦντι, ἀλλ᾽ ἵνα τι ἐκείνῳ.
δ. We may do away with obligation on the grounds ἣ ἢ Ore αὑτῶν ἕνεκα ὑπηρετοῦσιν, ἢ ὑπηρέτησαν" ἢ ὅτι ἀπὸ τύχης συνέ-πεσεν, κι Ts Ne VIII. Ἔλεος is λύπη τις ἐπὶ φαινομένῳ κακῷ φθαρτικῷ καὶ λυπηρῷ τοῦ ἀναξίου τυγχάνειν, ὁ κἂν αὐτὸς προσδοκήσειεν ἂν πα-θεῖν, ἢ τῶν αὐτοῦ τινα καὶ τοῦτο, ὅταν πλησίον φαίνηται.
8. ᾿Ελεεινὰ are ὅσα τῶν λυπηρῶν καὶ ὀδονηρῶν φθαρτικά.
IX. But to pity is particularly opposed τὸ νεμεσᾷν᾽ τῷ γὰβ λυπεῖσθαι ἐπὶ ταῖς ἀναξίαις κακοπραγίαις ἀντικείμενόν ἐστι τρό-πον τινὰ, καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἤθους, τὸ λυπεῖσθαι ἐπὶ ταῖς ἀναξἕ-ἰαις εὐπραγίαις" καὶ ἄμφω τὰ πάθη ἤθους χρηστοῦ. 2. Whence νέμεσις is even an attribute of the gods.
3. But φθόνος is differently opposed to pity, for it is λύπη ταραχώδης ἐ ἐπὶ εὐπραγίᾳ, ἀλλ᾽ οὐ τοῦ ἀναξίου, ἀλλὰ τοῦ ἴσου καὶ ὑμοίου. But it is solely with reference to one’s neighbour, otherwise it will be φόβος.
4. But, by parity of reasoning, ὁ λυπούμενος ἐ ἐπὶ τοῖς ἀναξίως κακοπραγοῦσιν ἡσθήσεται, ἢ ἄλυπος ἔσται, ἐπὶ τοῖς. ἐναντίως κακοπραγοῦσιν.
5. ὋὉ αὐτός ἐστιν ἐπιχαιρέκακος καὶ φθονερός" ἐφ᾽ ᾧ γάρ τις λυπεῖται γιγνομένῳ, καὶ ὑπάρχοντι, ἀναγκαῖον, τοῦτον ἐπὶ τῇ στερήσει, καὶ τῇ φθορᾷ τῇ τούτου χαίρειν ἀγάγκη.
For the enumeration of the objects of γέμεσις, see Hates.
X.—1. Φθόνος is defined to be λύπη τις ἐπὶ εὐπραγίᾳ φαινο-μένῃ τῶν εἰρημένων ἀγαθῶν περὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους, μὴ ἵνα τι αὐτῷ, ἀλλὰ δι ἐκείνους" φθονήσουσι μὲν γὰρ οἱ τοιοῦτοι, οἷς εἰσί τινες ὅμοιοι, ἣ φαίνονται. And ὅμοιοι are κατὰ γένος, κατὰ συγγέvevav, καθ᾽ ἡλικίας, καθ᾽ ἕξεις, κατὰ δόξαν, κατὰ τὰ ὑπάρχοντα.
XI. Ζῆλος is λύπη τις ἐπὶ φαινομένῃ “παρουσίᾳ ἀγαθῶν ἐντί- ' μων; καὶ ἐνδεχομένων αὑτῷ λαβεῖν, περὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους τῇ φύσε:, ι οὐχ Ore ἄλλῳ, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι οὐχὶ καὶ αὑτῷ ἐστι. _ Hence ζῆλος ἐπι-εικές ἐστι, καὶ ἐπιεικῶν, but φθόνος is φαῦλον, καὶ φαύλων».
XII. Aristotle now considers the passions and habits ot men according to their ages, which are three, γεότης, ἀκμὴ, καὶ γῆρας. See Hobbes.
16. Mirth or εὐτραπελία πεπαιδευμένη ὕβρις ἐστί.
XIII. Old mer are in most respects the contrary.
XIV. But οἱ ἀκμάζοντες are μεταξὺ τούτων τὸ ἦθος, in all respects.
XV. The goods of fortune are nex‘ considered, in as far as they influence the dispositions of men. And, first, the ἦθος of 2. ebyeveia is defined to be τὸ φιλοτιμότερον εἶναι τὸν κεκτημένον αὐτήν" but εὐγένεια is ἐντιμότης προγόνων" καὶ καταφρονητικὸν καὶ τῶν ὁμοίων τοῖς προγόνοις τοῖς αὐτῶν. 8. It differs from τὸ γενναῖον, inasmuch as εὐγενὲς is said κατὰ τὴν τοῦ γένους ἀρετήν" but γενναῖον κατὰ τὸ μὴ ἐξίστασθαι τῆς φύσεως.
XVI. Of wealth it is observed, ὑβρισταὶ καὶ ὑπερήφανοι πάσχοντές τι ὑπὸ τῆς κτήσεως τοῦ TAOUTOv. He then enumerates the characteristics of the wealthy, observing ἐν κεφαλαίῳ, ἀνοήτου εὐδαίμονος ἦθος πλούτου ἐστι. But the difference between those ‘of recent and long-standing wealth, consists τῷ ἅπαντα μᾶλλον καὶ φαυλότερα τὰ κακὰ ἔχειν τοὺς νεοπλούτους" ὥσπερ γὰρ ἀπαι-δευσία πλούτου ἐστὶ τὸ νεόπλουτον εἶναι..
XVII. The disposition of the powerful and the fortunate.
XVIII.—1. Having shown that there are κοινὰ εἴδη belonging to all the three kinds of oratory, πᾶσι yap ἀναγκαῖον, ra περὶ τοῦ δυνατοῦ καὶ ἀδυνάτου προσχρῆσθαι ἐν τοῖς λόγοις" Kal τοὺς μὲν, ὡς ἔσται᾽ τοὺς δὲ, ὡς γέγονε, πειρᾶσθαι δεικνύναι. "Ἔτι δὲ, περὶ μεγέθους κοινὸν ἁπάντων ἐστὶ τῶν λόγων" χρῶνται γὰρ πάντες τῷ μειοῦν καὶ αὔξειν, καὶ συμβουλεύοντες ἣ ἀποτρέποντες, καὶ ἐπαινοῦντες ἢ ψέγοντες, καὶ κατηγοροῦντες ἣ ἀπολογούμενοι. Aristotle proceeds to lay down a list of the different κοινὰ εἴδη applicable to each. See Hobbes.
XX. Having treated of αἱ ἴδιαι πίστεις, Aristotle proceeds to ai κοιναὶ, which are δύο τῷ γένει, παράδειγμα καὶ ἐνθύμημα" 2. i γὰρ γνώμη μέρος ἐνθυμήματός ἐστι. 8. Παραδειγμάτων δ᾽ εἴδη δύο" ἕν μὲν γάρ ἐστι παραδείγματος εἶδος τὸ λέγειν πράγ-ματα προγεγενημένα" ἕν δὲ τὸ αὐτὸν ποιεῖν. Τούτου δ᾽ ἕν μὲν παραβολή" ἕν δὲ λόγοι" οἷον οἱ Αἰσώπειοι. Specimens of both.
7. The λόγοι are δημηγορικοὶ, and have the advantage, ὅτι πράγματα εὑρεῖν ὅμοια γεγενημένα, χαλεπόν' λόγους δὲ, ῥᾷον. But τὰ πράγματα are best πρὸς τὸ βουλεύσασθαι" ὅμοια γὰρ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τὰ μέλλοντα τοῖς γεγονόσι.
9. Δεῖ δὲ χρῆσθαι τοῖς παραδείγμασιν, οὐκ ἔχοντα μὲν ἐνθυμή-ματα, ὡς ἀποδείξεσιν. ἡ γὰρ πίστις διὰ τούτων" ἔχοντα δὲ, ὡς μαρτυρίοις, ἐπιλόγῳ χρώμενον [ἐπὶ] τοῖς ἐνθυμήμασι.
XXI.—2. Τνώμη is defined ἀπόφανσις, οὐ μέντοι περὶ τῶν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον' ἀλλὰ καθόλον" καὶ οὐ περὶ πάντων, ἀλλὰ περὶ ὅσων αἱ πράξεις εἰσὶ, καὶ αἱρετὰ i) φευκτά ἐστι πρὸς τὸ πράσσειν.
But since enthymems are syllogisms περὶ τοιούτων, τὰ συμο OF ARISTOTLE’S. RHETORIC, 397 περάσματα τῶν ἐνθυμημάτων, καὶ αἱ ἀρχαὶ, ἀφαιρεθέντος τοῦ συλλογισμοῦ, γνῶμαί εἰσιν" προστεθείσης δὲ τῆς αἰτίας, καὶ τοῦ διὰ τί, ἐνθύμημα ἔσται τὸ ἅπαν.
3. Hence there are four kinds of γνώμη, as being either per’ ἐπιλόγου, ἄνευ ἐπιλόγου, 1. ἐνθυμήματος μέρος. 1. διὰ τὸ προεγνῶσθαι. 2. ἐνθυμηματικαὶ, ἐν ὅσαις 2. ἅμα λεγόμεναι δηλαι.
ἐμφαίνεται τοῦ λεγομένου TO αἴτιον.- 15. These sort of sayings are of great use, 1. διὰ τὴν φορτι-κότητα τῶν ἀκροατῶν" χαίρουσι γὰρ, ἐὰν τις καθόλου λέγων ἐπι-τύχῃ τῶν δοξῶν, ἃς ἐκεῖνοι κατὰ μέρος ἔχουσιν. 2. ὅτι ἠθικοὺς ποιεῖ τοὺς λόγους, Which takes place ἐν ὅσοις δήλη ἧἡ προαίρεσις.
XXII. Requisites of enthymems. 1. οὔτε πόῤῥωθεν, οὔτε πάντα δεῖ λαμβάνοντα συνάγειν" 2. οὐκ ἐξ ἁπάντων τῶν δο-κούντων, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ τῶν ὡρισμένων λεκτέον" 8. μὴ μόνον συνάγειν ἐκ τῶν ἀναγκαίων, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐκ τῶν ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ.
4—12. Enumeration of the manner of forming enthymems on different subjects.
18. Στοιχεῖον καὶ τόπος ἐνθυμήματος τὸ αὐτό.
14, Two kinds of enthymems, τὰ μὲν γὰρ δεικέικά ἐστιν, ὅτι ἔστιν, ἢ οὐκ ἔστι τὰ δὲ ἐλεγκτικά" καὶ διαφέρει, ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς διαλεκτικοῖς ἔλεγχος καὶ συλλογισμός. Ἔστι δὲ τὸ μὲν δεικτικὸν ἐνθύμημα τὸ ἐξ ὁμολογουμένων συνάγειν" τὸ δὲ ἐλεγκτικὸν τὰ ἀνομολογούμενα συνάγειν.
XXII The τόποι ἐνθυμημάτων are, τῶν ἐναντίων. ἐκ τῶν ὁμοίων πτωσέων. ἐκ τῶν πρὸς ἄλληλα. ἐκ τοῦ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον, a fortiori, or a minori. εἰ μήτε μᾶλλον, μήτε ἧττον, by parity of reasoning. ἐκ τοῦ τὸν χρόνον σκοπεῖν. ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων καθ᾽ αὑτοὺς πρὸς τὸν εἰπόντα. ἐξ ὀρισμοῦ. ἐκ τοῦ ποσαχῶς. 10. ἐκ διαιρέσεως. il. ἐξ ἐ ἐπαγωγῆς. 12. ἐκ κρίσεως περὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ, ἣ ὁμοίου, ἣ ἐναντίου. 18. ἐκ τῶν μερῶν. 14, ἐπειδὴ ἐπὶ τῶν πλείστων συμβαίνει, ὥσθ᾽ ἕπεσθαί νἱὶ COMA OB rb αὐτοῖς ἀγαθὸν καὶ κακὸν, ἐκ τοῦ ἀκολουθοῦντος προτρέπειν ἣ ἀποτρέπειν.
15. ὅταν περὶ δυοῖν καὶ ἀντικειμένοιν [ἢ προτρέπειν ἢ ἀπο-τρέπειν δέῃ, καὶ τῷ πρότερον εἰρημένῳ τύπῳ ἐπ᾽ ἀμφοῖν χρῆσθαι, the dilemma.
16. ἐπειδὴ οὗ τὰ αὑτὰ φανερῶς ἐπαινοῦσι καὶ ἀφανῶς.
17. ἐκ τοῦ ἀνάλογον ταῦτα “συμβαίνειν.
18. ἐς τοῦ, τὸ συμβαῖνον ἐὰν ἦ ταὐτὸν, ὅτι καὶ ἐξ ὧν συμ-βαίνει ταὐτά.
19. ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ταὐτὸ αἰεὶ αἱρεῖσθαι ὕστερον ἣ πρότερον, ἀλλ᾽ ἀνάπαλιν, οἷον τόδε τὸ ἐνθύμημα.
20. τὸ, οὗ ἕνεκα ἂν εἴη, ἢ γένοιτο, τούτου ἕνεκα φάναι εἶναι, ἢ γεγενῆσθαι.
21. σκοπεῖν τὰ προτρέποντα καὶ ἀποτρέποντα, καὶ ὧν ἕνεκα καὶ πράττουσι καὶ φεύγουσι.
22. ἐκ τῶν δοκούντων μὲν γίγνεσθαι, ἀπίστων δὲ.
28. ἐλεγκτικὸς, τὸ τὰ ἀνομολογούμενα σκοπεῖν, εἴ TL ἀνομολο-γούμενον ἐκ πάντων [καὶ] χρόνων, καὶ πράξεων, καὶ λόγων.
24, role προδιαβεβλημένοις καὶ ἀνθρώποις καὶ πράγμασι, jj δοκοῦσι, τὸ λέγειν τὴν αἰτίαν τοῦ παραδόξου.
25. ἀπὸ τοῦ αἰτίου, ἄν τε ὑπάρχῃ; ὅτι ἐστί κἂν μὴ ὑπάρχῃ, ὅτι οὐκ ἔστιν" ἅμα.
26. εἰ ἐνεδέχετο βέλτιον ἄλλως, ἣ ἐνδέχεται, ὧν ἣ συμβου-λεύει, ἢ πράττει, 7) πέπραχεν, σκοπεῖν.
27. ὅταν τι ἐναντίον μέλλῃ πράττεσθαι τοῖς πεπραγμένοις, ἅμα σκοπεῖν.
28. τὸ ἐκ τῶν ἁμαρτηθέντων κατηγορεῖν, ἢ ἀπολογεῖσθαι.
29. ἀπὸ τοῦ ὀνόματος.
The ἐλεγκτικὰ are preferred.
XXIV. Apparent enthymems are, 1, παρὰ τὴν λέξιν. 1. τὸ μὴ συλλογισάμενον συμπερασματι-κῶς τὸ τελευταῖον εἰπεῖν. 2. το παρὰ τὴν ὁμωνυμίαν.
2. τὸ διῃρημένον συντιθέντα λέγειν, ἣ τὸ συγκείμενον διαι-ροῦντα.
8. τὸ δεινώσει κατασκευάζειν, ἣ ἣ ἀνασκευάζειν, ὅταν μὴ δείξ. ς, ὅτι ἐποίησεν, αὐξήσῃ τὸ πρᾶγμα.
4, τὸ ἐκ σημείου.
5. διὰ τὸ συμβεβηκός.
6. παρὰ τὸ ἑπόμενον.
7. παρὰ τὸ ἐναίτιον ὡς αἴτιον.
8, παρὰ τὴ; ἔλλειψιν τοῦ πότε καὶ THE.
OF ARISTOTLE’S RHETORIC.; 399 9. ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς ἐριστικοῖς Tapa τὸ ἁπλῶς καὶ μὴ ἁπλῶς, ἀλλό το γίγνεται φαινόμενος συλλογισμός" from what is not ἁπλῶς εἰκὸς, but re εἰκός.
XXV. Solution of arguments is managed either by an ἀντισυλλογισμὸς. or ἔνστασις.
8. ἼἝνστασις is fourfold. 1. ἐκ ταὐτοῦ. 2. ἐκ τοῦ ὁμοίου. 3. ἐκ τοῦ ἐναντίου. 4. ἐκ τῶν κεκριμμένων.
8. Since enthymems are derived from εἰκὸς, παράδειγμα, τεκμήριον, and σημεῖον, and since the inferences from what is usual are ἐκ τῶν εἰκότων, but those from ἐπαγωγὴ are derived διὰ παραδείγματος, but ἀναγκαῖα, διὰ τεκμηρίου, and those drawn from what holds good or not, either universally or particularly, are διὰ σημείων, and as εἰκὸς is only ἐπὶ τὸ rode, it is plain that all reasonings may be got rid of by objection.
9. ‘H δὲ λύσις “Φαινομένη, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἀληθὴς αἰεί" οὐ γὰρ, ὅτι οὐκ εἰκὸς, λύει ὁ ἐνιστάμενος, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον. Διὸ καὶ ἀεί ἐστι πλεονεκτεῖν ἀπολογούμενον μᾶλλον ἢ κατηγοροῦντα, διὰ τοῦτον τὸν παραλογισμόν.
12, Λύεται δὲ καὶ τὰ σημεῖα, καὶ τὰ διὰ σημείου ἐνθυμήματα εἰρημένα, κἂν ἦ ὑπάρχοντα, since ἀσυλλόγιστόν ἐ ἐστι πᾶν σημεῖον.
18. The same λύσις applies to ra mapaderyparwen Kai τὰ εἰκότα' ἐὰν yap ἔχωμέν τι οὐχ οὕτως, λέλυται, but, if the major part be against us, we must strive to show ὅτι οὐχ ὅμοιον τὸ παρόν.
14, But τεκμήρια καὶ τεκμηριώδη ἐνθυμήματα κατὰ μὲν τὸ ἀσυλλόγιστον οὐκ ἔσται λῦσαι.
XXVI. Τὸ αὔξειν καὶ μειοῦν οὐκ ἔστιν ἐνθυμήματος στοι- χεῖον, but they are ἐνθυμήματα πρὸς τὸ δεῖξαι, ὅτι μέγα ἢ μικρὸν.
8. Οὐδὲ τὰ λυτικὰ ἐνθυμήματος εἶδός τί ἐστιν ἄλλο τῶν κατα-σεευαστικῶν.
4, Nor is ἔνστασις an enthymem, but τὸ εἰπεῖν δόξαν τινὰ, ἐξ ἧς ἔσται δῆλον», ὅτι ov συλλελόγισται, ἣ ὅτι ψεῦδός τι εἴληφεν.
BOOK III.
I.—1. Three points to be considered in a speech, riorig, λέξις, and τάξις.
2. We may treat of λέξις, for it is not sufficient ἔχει», ἃ δεῖ λέγειν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀνάγκη καὶ ταῦτα, ὡς δεῖ, εἰπεῖν.
8. Now ὑπόκρισις has been omitted, which indeed came late into Tragedy and Rhapsody, for the poets at first recited their own verses.
4, It consists in three things, μέγεθος, ἁρμονία, ῥυθμός.
6. After showing its disadvantages, Aristotle observes, τὸ μὲν οὖν τῆς λέξεως ὅ ὅμως ἔχει τι μικρὸν ἀναγκαῖον ἐν πάσῃ δι-ξασκαλέᾳ" διαφέρει γάρ τι πρὸς τὸ δηλώσαι, ὡδὶ ἢ ἢ ὡδὶ εἰπεῖν, ov μέντοι τοσοῦτον᾽ ἀλλ᾽ ἅπαντα φαντασία ταῦτά ἐστι, καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἀκροατήν.
7. The effect of it is the same as that produced by acting.
8. The poets first made it their study, then the rhetoricians, after which it fell off, as the tragic poets have changed from tetrametre to Iambics.
II. Two ἀρεταὶ dé~ewe. 1. σαφῆ εἶναι. 2. μὴ ταπεινὴν, pare ὑπὲρ τὸ ἀξίωμα, ἀλλὰ πρέπουσαν.
2. The former virtue is obtained by the use of κύρια ὀνόματα, the latter by τὰ ἄλλα, διὸ δεῖ ποιεῖν ξένην τὴν διάλεκτον, because the hearers are θαυμασταὶ τῶν ἀπόντων.
3. This is more easy and suitable in poetry, hence in prose δεῖ λανθάνειν ποιοῦντας, Kal μὴ δοκεῖν λέγειν πεπλασμένως, ἀλλὰ πεφυκότως" τοῦτο γὰρ πιθανὸν, ἐκεῖνο δὲ τοὐναντίον.
5. Of the many species of nouns γλώτταις μὲν, καὶ διπλοῖς ὀνόμασι, καὶ πεποιημένοις, ὀλιγάκις Kal ὀλιγαχοῦ χρηστέον" ἐπὶ τὸ μεῖζον γὰρ ἐξαλλάττει τοῦ πρέποντος.
. 6. Τὸ δὲ κύριον καὶ τὸ οἰκεῖον, καὶ μεταφορὰ, μόναι χρήσιμοι πρὸς τὴν τῶν ψιλῶν λόγων λέξιν. ὅτι τούτοις μόνοις πάντες χρῶνται" πάντες γὰρ μεταφοραῖς διαλέγονται, καὶ τοῖς οἰκείοις, καὶ τοῖς κυρίοις. Hence if any one form his discourse well, ἔσται τε ξενικὸν, καὶ λανθάνειν ἐνδέχεται, καὶ σαφηνιεῖ.
7. ὁμωνυμίαι are useful to the sophist, συνώνυμα and κύρια to the poet.
8. Td σαφὲς, καὶ τὸ ἡδὺ, καὶ τὸ ξενικὸν ἔχει μάλιστα i μεταφορά.
-ὖ τυ β- OF ARISTOTLE’S RHETORIC. 401 9. Δεῖ δὲ καὶ ra ἐπίθετα, καὶ τὰς μεταφορὰς ἁρμοττούσας λέγειν, i. 6. ἐκ τοῦ ἀνάλογον.
10. Καὶ ἐὰν κοσμεῖν βούλῃ, ἀπὸ τοῦ βελτίονος τῶν ἐν ταὐτῷ γένει φέρειν τὴν μεταφορὰν, ἐὰν δὲ ψέγειν, ἀπὸ τῶν χειρόνων.
11, Ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἐν ταῖς συλλαβαῖς ἁμαρτία, ἐὰν μὴ ἡδείας ἦ σημεῖα φωνῆς.
12, Οὐ πόῤῥωθεν δεῖ, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ τῶν συγγενῶν καὶ τῶν ὁμοειδῶν μεταφέρειν τὰ ἀνώνυμα ὠνομασμένως, ὃ λεχθὲν δῆλόν ἐστιν ὅτι συγγενές.
18, Καὶ ἀπὸ καλῶν ἣ τῇ φωνῇ, ἣ τῇ δυνάμει, ἣ τῇ ὄψει, ἢ ἄλλῃ τινὶ αἰσθήσει.
14, And epithets may be derived ἀπὸ φαύλου ἣ αἰσχροῦ, or ἀπὸ τοῦ βελτίονος, and we may also make use of ὑποκορισμός.
Il. Ψυχρὰ are produced in four ways: 1. ἔν τοῖς διπλοῖς ὀνόμασιν.
2. ἐν τῷ χρῆσθαι γλώτταις.
3. ἐν τοῖς ἐπιθέτοις, τὸ 7) μακροῖς, ἣ ἀκαίροις, ἢ πυκνοῖς χρῆσθαι.
4. μεταφοραὶ ἀπρεπεῖς, αἱ μὲν διὰ τὸ γελοῖον, αἱ δὲ διὰ τὸ σεμνὸν ἄγαν καὶ τραγικόν.
IV. Simile akin to metaphor. Examples.
V. ᾿Αρχὴ τῆς λέξεως τὸ Ἑλληνίζειν. And this is produced in four ways: 1. ἐν τοῖς συνδέσμοις.
2. ἐν τῷ τοῖς ἰδίοις ὀνόμασι λέγειν, καὶ μὴ τοῖς περιέχουσι.
8. μὴ ἀμφιβόλοις.
4. ἐν τῷ τὰ γένη τῶν ὀνομάτων ἄῤῥενα, καὶ θήλεα, καὶ σκεύη ἀποδιδόναι ὀρθῶς.
5. ἐν τῷ τὰ πολλὰ, καὶ ὀλίγα, καὶ ἕν, ὀρθῶς ὀνομάζειν.
6. Ὅλως δὲ δεῖ εὐανάγνωστον εἶναι τὸ γεγραμμένον, καὶ εὔφραστον" and this must not depend upon the punctuation.
7. It causes a solecism, μὴ ἀποδιδόναι, ἐὰν μὴ ἐπιζευγνύῃς ἀμφοῖν, ὃ ἁρμόττει.
And it is indistinct, ἂν μὴ προθεὶς εἴπῃς, μέλλων πολλὰ με-ταξὺ ἐμβάλλειν.
VI. To produce ὄγχος, the following rules contribute: 1. τὸ λόγῳ χρῆσθαι ἀντ᾽ ὀνόματος.
. ἐὰν αἰσχρον ἦ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ, τοὔνομα λέγειν, and vice versa. . μεταφοραῖς δηλοῦν, καὶ ἐπιθέτοις, εὐλαβούμενον τὸ ποιητικόν . τὸ ἕν πολλὰ ποιεῖν. . μὴ ἐπιζευγνύναι.
ὧν > ὧϑ DO 2D 402 APPENDIX lv THE ANALYSIS 6. μετὰ συνδέσμου λέγειν. 7. By negative epithets.
VIL —l. To δὲ πρέπον ἕξει ἡ λέξις, ἐὰν ἦ nabeete τε καὶ ἠθικὴ, καὶ τοῖς ὑποκειμένοις πράγμασιν ἀνάλογον. But ἀνάλογον is, ἐὰν μήτε περὶ εὐόγκων ᾿αὐτοκαβδάλως λέγηται, pire περὶ εὐτελῶν σεμνῶς" μηδ᾽ ἐπὶ τῷ εὐτελεῖ ὀνόματι ἐπῇ κόσμος. Instances. See Wane VIII. On the rhythms. See the notes, p. 227, sq.
XI. Eipopévn λέξις, ἣ οὐδὲν ἔχει τέλος καθ᾽ αὑτὴν, ἂν μὴ τὸ πρᾶγμα λεγόμενον τελειωθῇ.
Κατεστραμμένη, ἡ ἐν περιόδοις. And περίοδος, is defined to be λέξις ἔ ἔχουσα ἀρχὴν καὶ τελευτὴν αὐτὴν καθ᾽ αὑτὴν, καὶ μέγε-θος εὐσύνοπτον᾽ and it must finish with the sense, and not be cut off.
5. Περίοδος δὲ, ἡ μὲν ἐν κώλοις" ἡ δὲ ἀφελής. "Ἔστι δὲ ἐν κώλοις μὲν λέξις ἡ ἡ τετελειωμένη τε καὶ διῃρημένη, καὶ εὐανάπνευ-στος, μὴ ἐν τῇ διαιρέσει, ὥσπερ ἡ εἰρημένη περίοδος, ἀλλ᾽ ὅλη. Κῶλον δ᾽ ἐστὶ τὸ ἕτερον μόριον ταύτης. ᾿Αφελῆ δὲ λέγω τὴν μονόκωλον.
7. And ἣ ἐν κώλοις is either διῃρημένη ΟΥ̓ ἀντικειμένη.
9. Παρομοίωσις is when ὅμοια τὰ ἔσχατα ἔχῃ ἑκάτερον τῶν κώλων.
X.—2. Since τὸ μανθάνειν ῥᾳδίως ἡδὺ φύσει πᾶσιν, κύρια, μεταφοραὶ, and εἰκονες chiefly contribute to the fundamental principle of elegance, μάθησις.
4. ᾿Ανάγκη δὴ, καὶ λέξιν, καὶ ἐνθυμήματα ταῦτα εἶναι ἀστεῖα, ὕσα ποιεῖ ἡμῖν μάθησιν ταχεῖαν.
ὅ. καὶ ἐὰν ἀντικειμένως λέγηται.
7. Of the four kinds of metaphors, ai κατ᾽ ἀναλογίαν εὐδο-κιμοῦσι μάλιστα.
XI.—1. A man is said ποιεῖν πρὸ ὁμμάτων, ὅσα ἐνεργοῦντα σημαίνει. See Hobbes, p. 337.
XII. Each kind of oratory has its proper λέξις.
Now the λέξις γραφικὴ is ἡ ἀκριβεστάτη; but the ἀγωνιστικὴ is ἡ ὑποκριτικωτάτη. Ταύτης δὲ δύο εἴδη" ἡ μὲν yao ἠθική" ἣ. δὲ παθητική.
Ἔ And δημηγορικὴ λέξις παντελῶς ἔοικε τῇ σκιαγραφίᾳ.
5. ἡ δὲ δίκη ἀκριβέστεοον. 6. ἡ δὲ ἐπιδεικτικὴ λέξις γραφικωτάτη" δευτέρα δὲ ἡ δικανική. XJII.—1. The parts of a speech are two, ἀναγκαῖον yap, τὸ πρᾶγμα εἰπεῖν, περὶ OV, καὶ TOUT ἀποδεῖξαι.
OF ARISTOTILE’S RHETORIC. 403 2. Hence the πρόθεσις and πέστις are τὰ ἀναγκαῖα μόρια.
4, But there are in all four, προοίμιον, πρόθεσις, πίστις, ἐπίλογος.
XIV. Προοίμιον ἐστιν ἀρχὴ λόγου" ὅπερ ἐν ποιήσει πρόλογος, καὶ ἐν αὐλήσει προαύλιον. For this and the next chapter, see Hobbes, p. 339, sqq.
XVI. Διήγησις δ᾽ ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἐπιδεικτικοῖς ἐστιν οὐκ ἐφεξῆς, ἀλλὰ κατὰ μέρος.
4, In δικανικὴ, the διήγησις must be clear, and the orator should, by a παραδιήγησις, tell ὅσα εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀρετὴν φέρει, ἢ θατέρου κακίαν, ἣ ὅσα ἡδέα τοῖς δικασταῖς.
7. Πεπραγμένα δεῖ λέγειν, ὅσα μὴ πραττόμενα ἢ οἶκτον, ἣ δείνωσιν φέρει.
8. And the διήγησις must be ἡθική. 1. By showing the προαίρεσις. 2. τὰ ἑπόμενα ἑκάστῳ ἤθει. 8. μὴ ὡς ἀπὸ διανοίας "λέγειν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς ἀπὸ προαιρέσεως.
10. “Eri, ἐκ τῶν παθητικῶν λέγε, διηγούμενος καὶ τὰ ἑπόμενα, καὶ ἃ ἴσασι, καὶ τὰ ἰδίᾳ ἢ αὐτῷ, ἢ ἐκείνῳ προσόντα. Καὶ εὐθὺς εἰσάσαγε σεαυτὸν ποῖον τινα, ἵνα ὡς τοιοῦτον θεωρῶσι, καὶ τὸν ἀντίδικον. λανθάνων δὲ ποίει.
11. But in δημηγορίᾳ, διήγησις is least used, and only περὶ μελλόντων, iva ἀναμνησθέντες ἐκείνων βέλτιον βουλεύσωνται περὶ τῶν ὕστερον.; XVII. Πίστεις must be ἀποδεικτικαί, upon four points. See Hobbes, p. 343, sq. As also for the two next chapter THE END.
"χά: at a “ad oa τΩ ἘΠΕ Andee nde is) be i oth Bis fasts THE POETIC OF ARISTOTLE, LITERALLY TRANSLATED, WITH A SELECTION OF NOTE, AN ANALYSIS, AND QUESTIONS,; | BY THEODORE BUCKLEY, B.A.
OF CHRIST CHURCH.
THE POETIO, CHAP. 1.
On Poetry im general, as an imitative Art, and tts different Species, Let us speak concerning poetry itself, and its [different | species'; what power each possesses, and how 1, On Poetry, its influence fables must be composed, in order that poetry may and spebe such as is fitting: further still, [let us show] of cies.
how many and what kind of parts it consists; and in like manner [let us treat] concerning such other things as pertain to this method, beginning, conformably to nature, first from such things as are first.
The epopee, therefore, and tragic poetry, and moreover comedy, and dithyrambic poetry, and the greatest part of the art pertaining to the flute and the lyre’, are all entirely imitations®. They differ, however, in three things; for [they differ] either by diff imitating through means different in kind, or by imitating different objects, or in a different, and not after the same manner. For as certain persons assimilating, imitate many things by colours and figures, some indeed through art, but others through custom, [and others through voice |*; thus also in the afore- “ Poesis in species sive formas (εἴδη), forme rursus in partes (μόρια, μέρη) dividuntur.” Ritter.
2 Cf. Plato Theag. p. 10. Ὁ. Cithern-playing was one of the favourite accomplishments of the Athenian youth, ibid. p. 8. E. Alcib. Pr. p. 26. D.. Lem. and Olympiodor. in eund. t. ii. p. 65. ed. Creuz.
* See Ritter, and Twining’s Dissertations and first note, * Hermann reads φύσεως for φωνῆς with Madius, but Ritter rondemns the words as ore 5. Dancing imitates by rhythm ~,, only. vey fa ας, 6. The χχ γις " epopee by is ule (XY ords. 7. Etymentioned arts, all of them indeed produce imitation in rhythm, words, and harmony; and in these, either distinctly, or mingled together, as, for instance, the arts of the flute and the lyre alone employ harmony and rhythm®; and this will also be the case with any other arts which possess a power of this kind, such as the art of playing on reed-pipes. But the arts pertaining to dancing imitate by rhythm, without harmony; for dancers, through figured rhythms, imitate manners, and passions, and actions. But the epopee alone imitates by mere words® or metres, and by these either mingling them with each other, or employing one certain kind of metres, which method has been adopted up to the present time’. For otherwise we mology of should have no common name, by which we could the name Poet.
denominate the Mimes of Sophron and Xenarchus, and the dialogues of Socrates; or those who imitate by trimetres, or elegies, or certain other things of this kind; except that men joining with metre the verb to make®, call some of these makers of elegies, but others epic makers, not as poets according to imi+ 5 Cf. Rhet. iii. 8.
6 There is much difficulty about this definition of ἐποποιία, as λόγοις ψιλοῖς is supposed by some to mean prose, (see Robortell. p. 14,) by others, verse without music. The former opinion is advocated by Hermann, the latter by Buhle. Ritter seems to have clearly shown that ἢ τοῖς μέτροις is added, not as an explanation of λόγοις ψιλοῖς, but disjunctively, and that ἐποποιία is used in a new sense for certain parts of prose-writing as well as verse. The sense is, therefore, “‘ by prose or by metre, but unaccompanied by song.”
7 Ritter observes that the following passage is an excuse for the new signification of ἐποποιία.
5. It may be necessary to observe, that the Greek word (arorntns—poiétes) whence poeta, and poet, is, literally, maker; and maker, it is well known, was once the current term fur poet in our language; and to write verses, was, to make. Sir Philip Sidney, speaking of the Greek word, says, ‘ wherein, I know not whether by luck or wisdom, we Englishmen have met with the Greeks, in calling him maker.” Defense οὗ Poesy.
So Spenser: So Spenser: The god of shepherds, Tityrus, is dead, Who taught me, homely, as I can, to MAKE. Shep. Cal. June. Twining.
CHAP. II.] POETIC. 409 tation, but denominating them in common according to measure. For they are accustomed thus to denominate them, if they write any thing medical or musical in verse. There is, however, nothing common to Homer and Empedocles except the measure; on which account, it is right indeed to call the former a poet; but the latter, a physiologist rather than a poet. In like manner, though some one, mingling all the measures, should produce imitation, as Cheremon has done in his Centaur, a mixed rhapsody of all the metres, yet he must not be called a poet®.. Let it then be thus laid down concerning these particulars. But there are some kinds of poetry which employ all the before-mentioned means, I mean, rhythm, melody, and measure, such as dithyrambic poetry and the Nomes”, and also tragedy and comedy. But these differ, because some of them use all these at once, but others partial: I speak, therefore, of these differences of the arts in respect to the means by which they produce imitation.
On Imitation, and its usual Objects.
cwir~ BUT since imitators imitate those who do someuo” thing, and it is necessary that these should either be worthy or depraved persons; (for manners nearly always depend on these alone, since all men differ in their manners by vice and virtue;) it is necessary either [to imitate] those who are better than we are, 9 ** For imitation makes the poet, not the metre.’’ Ritter.
10 In dithyrambic or Bacchic hymns, and in the Nomes, which were also a species of hymns to Apollo and other deities, a// the means of imitation were employed together, and throughout: in tragedy and comedy, separately; some of them in one part of the drama, and some in another. In the choral part, however, at least, if no where else, αὐ, melody, rhythm, and words, must probably have been used at once, as in the hymns. Twining.
8. Which name is common to writers on other subjects.
9. But the adherence to metre does not make the poet.
10. Means respectively employed by the different kind: of poetry.
1. Objects of imitation either good or bad, as in painting.
2. And imitations different.
1. Imitations different in the manner.
410 ARISTOTLE’S {CHAP. HL.
or those who are worse, or such as are like ourselves!, in the same manner as painters do. For Polygnotus, indeed, painted men more beautiful than they are, but Pauson less so, and Dionysius painted them as they are®. But it is evident that each of the beforementioned imitations will have these differences; and imitation is different, by imitating different things after this manner. For there may be differences of this kind in dancing, in playing on the flute, on the lyre, and also in orations and mere measure. Thus Homer imitates better men? [than exist], but Cleophon men as they are; and Hegemon the Thasian, who first made parodies, and Nicochares, who wrote the Deliad, imitate worse characters. In like manner in dithyrambics and the Nomi, [as Timotheus and Philoxenus have imitated the Persians and the Cyclops, | one may imitate‘. By this very same difference, also, tragedy differs from comedy. For the oge seeks to imitate worse, but the other better men tifan are.
The third difference of Poetry according to the manner of imitating, THERE is also a third difference of these, consisting in the manner in which one may imitate each of 1 Or, ‘‘ those who are commonly found.”
2 Polygnotus and Dionysius lived about Ol. 80; Pauson about Ol. 90. On the following poets see Ritter.
3 Superior, that is, in courage, strength, wisdom, prudence, etc.—in any laudable, useful, or admirable quality, whether such as we denominate moral, or not. If superiority of moral character only were meant, the assertion would be false.—It is necessary to remember here, the wide sense in which the ancients used the terms virtue, vice—good, bad, etc. See note 19.—The difference between moral and poetical perfection of character, is well explained by Dr. Beattie; Essay on Poetry, etc., Part I. ch. 4. The heroes of Homer, as he well observes, are “ finer animals” than we are, (p. 69,) not better men. Twining.
* Ritter would.hrow out the words enclosed in brackets See his note.
CHAP. IIt.* POETIC. All them. For by the same instruments the same things may be imitated, the poet sometimes himself narrating, and sometimes assuming another person [as Homer does ]!; or speaking as the same person without any change; or as all imitate [who do so] by deed and action. But imitation consists in these three differences, as we said in the beginning; viz. in the means, the objects, or the manner. Hence, Sophocles will in one respect be the same imitator as Homer, for both of them imitate elevated characters; and in another the same as Aristophanes, for both of them imitate persons engaged in acting; [?whence also it is said that certain persons call their works dramas, because they imitate those who are engaged in doing something. On this account the Dorians lay claim to the invention of tragedy and comedy; of comedy indeed the Megarians, as well those who are natives of Greece, as being invented by them at the time when their government was a democracy, as those of Sicily. For thence was the poet Epicharmus, who was much prior to Chonides and Magnes. But some of those Dorians who inhabit Peloponnesus lay claim to tragedy, making names an evidence. For they allege that they call their villages komai, but the Athenians demoi; as if comedians were not so denominated from komazein, [i. 6. to revel,| but from their wandering through villages, being ignominiously expelled from the cities. The verb poiein also, or to make, is by the Dorians denominated dran, but by the Athenians prattein.]
2. And the differ ences of imitation are three.
3. Etymology of the drama andclaims to its invention.
And thus much concerning the differences of imita- 4 tion, as to their number and quality.
1 But this assertion is not correct, and Ritter shows that the words are spurious.
2 The learned note of Ritter seems to condemn the whole of this passage as spurious.
ait ARISTOTLE’S [cuar. rv.
The Cawses and Progress of Poetry.
a ig Two causes, however, and these physical, appezr 2. of poe- to have produced poetry in general. For to imitate try,and is congenial to men from childhood. And in this oe a. they differ from other animals, that they are most the first, imitative, and acquire the first disciplines through the na- jmitation; and that all men delight in imitations. alg hers But an evidence of this is that which happens in the tion, works [of artists]. For we are delighted on survey-8, seen in ing very accurate images, the realities of which are ἜΝΗΦΡ ΝΟ painful to the view; such as the forms of the most ofart; contemptible animals, and dead bodies. The cause, τ because however, of this is, that learning is not only most deo learn is,...4: ever plea- lightful to philosophers, but in like manner to other sant. persons, though they partake of ‘it but in a small delight ie degree. For on this account, men are delighted on images. Surveying images, because it happens that by surveying they learn and infer what each particular is; as, that this is an image of that man; since, unless one happen to have seen [the reality], it is not the imitation that pleases', but [it is through] either the gag workmanship, or the colour, or some other cause of fromimit- the like kind. But imitation, harmony, and rhythm ation, + being natural to us, (for it is evident that measures harmony, or metres are parts of rhythms,? ) the earliest among rhythm, mankind, making a gradual progress in these things 1 Ritter well reads οὐχὲ μίμημα ἦ μίμημα.
2 “Ruyrnum differs from METRE, inasmuch as RHYTHM is proportion, applied to any motion whatever; METRE is proportion, applied to the motion of worDs spoKEN. Thus, in the drumming of a march, or the dancing of a hornpipe, there is rhythm, though no metre; in Dryden’s celebrated Ode there is METRE as well as RHYTHM, because the poet with the rhythm has associated certain words. And hence it follows, that, though ALL METRE is RHYTHM, yet ALL RHYTHM is NOTMETRE.” Harris’s Philol. Inquiries, p. 67,—where it is also observed, very truly, that “πὸ English word expresses rhythmus better than the word time.” P. 69, note. Twining.
CHAP. 1V.) POETIC. 413 from the beginning, produced poetry from extemporaneous efforts. But poetry was divided according to appropriate manners. For men of a more venerable_character imitated beautiful actions, and the _actions of such men; but the more ignoble imitated the actions of depraved characters, first composing vituperative verses, in the same manner as the others composed hymns-and encomiums. Of the authors, therefore, before Homer, we cannot mention any poem of this kind; though it is probable that there were many such writers. But if we begin from Homer, there are such for instance as his Margites*, and some others, in which, as being suited, the measure is Iambic. Hence, also, the lambic verse is now called, because in this metre they used to Lambize (i. 6. defame) each other. Of ancient poets, likewise, some composed heroic poems, and others Iambic. Homer was the greatest of poets on serious subjects, (and this not only because he alone imitated well, but also because he made dramatic imitations,) thus too he first demonstrated the figures of comedy, not dra-.
matically exhibiting invective, but ridicule. For the Margites bears the same analogy to comedy, as the Iliad and Odyssey to tragedy. But when tragedy and comedy had those poets who were naturally impelled to each kind of poetry, some, instead of writing Iambics, became comic poets, but others, instead of [writing] epic poems, became the authors of tragedies, because these forms [of poetry] are greater and more esteemed than those. To consider, therefore, whether tragedy is now perfect 55 in its species or not, regarded as well with reference to itself as to the theatres, is the business of another treatise. Both tragedy and comedy, therefore, at first originated from extemporaneous efforts.
8 The character of the hero is handed down to us thus; Tov δ᾽ οὔτ᾽ do σκαπτῆρά θεοὶ θέσαν οὔτ᾽ ἀροτῆρα οὔτ᾽ ἄλλως τε σοφόν, πάσης δ᾽ ἠμάρτανε τέχνης. And again, word’ ἠπίστατο ἔργα, κακῶς δ᾽ ἠπίστατο πάντα. A character not unlike Sir Abel Handy i in Morton’s “ Schor* -ef Reform.”
But as P men originally produced poetry, 7. which was varied according to suitable manners.
8. No satirical poetry before ‘Homer’s Margites.
9. The old oets thence were either heroic or Iambic.
gress of the two styles, upon the introduction of 12. Both at first ex» tempornneous.
414 ARISTOTLE’S [cHar. rv.