On the Parts of Tragedy.
[Burt we have before spoken of the parts of tragedy which are requisite to constitute its quality. The parts of tragedy, however, according to quantity, and discoveries of “‘ inanimate things” (rings, bracelets, etc.) as are the means of bringing about the true discovery—that of the persons. For, in what follows, it is implied that these “‘ other sorts of discovery” produce neither terror nor pity, neither happiness nor unhappiness; which can by no means be said of such discoveries as are instrumental to the personal discovery, and, through that, to the catastrophe of the. piece. Of these, he treats afterwards.—Dacier, I think, has mistaken this. Twior Eur. Iph. Taur. 759. 92. 5 Ibid. 81]. 26.
». The whole of this paragraph is condemned by Ritter,.
CHAP XIi.] > POETIC. 429 into which it is separately divided, are as follow: prologue,' episode,’ exode,’ and chorus, of the parts of which one is the parodos,* but the other is the stasimon.> ‘These hate parts, therefore, are common to all [tragedies|; but the peculiar parts are [the songs| from the scene and the kommoit. And. the prologue, indeed, is the whole part of the tragedy, prior to the entrance of the chorus. The episode - 15 the whole part of the tragedy between two complete 2, Prologue. Episode.
odes of the chorus. The exode is the whole part of Exode.
the tragedy, after which there is no further melody of the chorus. ‘And of the chorus, the parodos, indeed, is the first speech of the whole chorus; but the stasimon is the melody of the chorus, without anapest and trochee: and the commos' is the common lamentation of the chorus and from the scene. But we have before shown what the parts of tragedy are which must necessarily be used; but the parts of it according to quantity, and into which it is separately divided, are these’. ] 1 Prologue—This may be compared to our first act. See note 40. Twining.
2 Episode—i. e. a part introduced, inserted, etc., as all the dialogue was, originally, between the choral odes. Twining.
3 Exode—i. 6. the going out, or exit; the concluding act, as we should term it. The Greek ha ρανας never finished with a choral ode. ‘Twining.
* Parode—i. e. entry of the chorus upon the stage: and hence the term was applied to what they first sung, upon their ἘΣ Twining.
5 ‘Stasimon—i. 6. stable; because, as it is explained, these odes were sung by the choral troop when fixed on the stage, and at rest: whereas the parode is said to have been sung as they came on. _ Hence, the trochaic and anapestic measures, being lively and full of motion, were adapted to the ον δ, but not to the stasimon. Twining.
6 From a verb signifying to beat or strike; alluding to the gestures of violent grief. _ 7 Ritter, who has illustrated this whole chapt ter with great learning and taste, allows its utility, but doubts that it is the work of Aristotle. The, reader will find his remarks on the different parts of tragedy very valuable.
Parodos, Stasimon Commos, 3.
2. Wes e Dhow not be simple. Proper vicissicudes.
nobalt Mor ys or 8 The character of the hero must be of a moderate The Essentials for a Tragic Plot.
In the next place we must show, as consequent to what has been said, what those who compose fables ought to aim at, and beware of, and whence the purpose of tragedy is effected. Since, therefore, it is necessary that the composition of the most beautiful tragedy should not be simple, but complex, and that it should be imitative of fearful and piteous actions—(for this is the peculiarity of such imitation) —in the first place it is evident, that it is not proper that worthy men should be represented as changed from prosperity to adversity, (for this is neither a subject of terror nor commiseration, but is impious, ) nor should depraved characters [be represented as changed | from adversity to prosperity; for this is the most foreign from tragedy of all things, since it possesses nothing which is proper; for it neither appeals to moral sense’, nor is piteous, nor fearful. Nor, again, must a very depraved man be represented as having fallen from prosperity into adversity. For such a composition will indeed possess moral tendency, but not pity or fear. For the one is conversant with a character which does not deserve to be unfortunate; but the other, with a character similar [to one’s own]. [And pity, indeed, is excited for one who does not deserve to be unfortunate; but fear, for one who resembles oneself?]; so that the event will neither appear to be commiserable, nor terrible. There remains therefore the character between these.
But a character of this kind is one, who neither excels in virtue and justice, nor is changed through vice and depravity, into misfortune, from a state of 1 Ritter considers τὸ φιλάνθρωπον as a feeling bordering on ἔλεος, “id quidem quod prope ad miserationem accedit.” It probably is best expressed by our “‘ humanity,” considered in both its senses.
3 Ritter condemns these words as a marginal annotation.
CHAP. XIII. ] POETIC. 431 great renown and prosperity, but has experienced excelthis change through some [human] error; such as ened €Edipus and Thyestes, and other illustrious men of ty: this kind. Hence it is necessary that a plot which 4. Simple is well constructed, should be rather single? than fble pre twofold, (though some say it should be the latter,) twofold. and that the change should not be into prosperity from adversity, but on the contrary into adversity from prosperity, not through depravity, but through some great error, either of such a character [as we have mentioned |, or better rather than worse. But δ, Proof the proof of this is what has taken place. For of old from the the poets adopted any casual fables; but now the ον ἡπαρ δ Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, and Telephus‘4, and such other persons as happen either to have suffered or done things of a dreadful nature. The tragedy, therefore, which is most beautiful according to art, is of this construction. Hence they erroneously blame 6, Anun-Euripides, who accuse him.-of having done this in his happy tragedies, and for making many of them terminate in por agi misfortune. For this method, as we have said, is tragedy, right; of which this is the greatest evidence, that in the scenes, and contests of the players, simple fables which terminate unhappily appear to be most tragical, if they are properly acted. And Euripides, though he does not manage other things well, yet appears to be the most tragic of poets®, The fable, 7. but however, ranks in the second place, though by some ee it is said to be the first composition, which has a °°?" twofold construction, such as the Odyssey, and which terminates in a contrary fortune, both to the better * What is here meant by a single fable, will appear presently from the account of its opposite—the double fable. It must not be confounded with the simple fable, though in the original both are expressed by the same word, The simple fable is only a fable without revolution, or discovery. Twining.
* The same remark applies to the French tragic stage.
5 But below, xv. 5. and Eth, iii. 1, Euripides is justly charged with the improper introduction of comic characters and language. The praise applies only to the catastrophe.
and worse characters. It appears, however, to rank re i in the first place, through the imbecility of the spec- ὑπ 8. andthe tators®. - For the poets, in composing their plots, ac-” happy commodate themselves to the wish of the spectators.
oe This pleasure, however, is not [properly] derived ferred. from tragedy, but is rather suited to comedy. For there, though the greatest enemies be introduced, as Orestes and A®gisthus, yet in the end they depart friends, and no one falls by the hand of the other’.
Of Terror and Pity.
1. Terror TERROR and pity, therefore, may be produced from — pity, the sight!. But they may also arise from the comow produced. 6 That weakness which cannot bear strong emotions, even: from fictitious distress. 1 have known those who could not look at that admirable picture, the Ugolino of Sir Jos. Reynolds.—To some minds, every thing that is not cheerful is shocking.—But,; might not the preference here attributed to weakness, be attributed to better causes—the gratification of philanthropy, the love of justice, order, etc.?—the same causes which, just before, induced Aristotle himself to condemn, as shocking and disgusting, those fables which involve the virtuous in calamity. Twining.; Modern audiences partake of this weakness. Thus, the catastrophe of “Measure for Measure,” ‘‘Cymbeline,” or “‘ Winter’s Tale,” are more satisfactory than those of ‘‘ Hamlet”? or ‘‘ Pizarro.’”? Knowles’s “ Hunchback” is a happy - Specimen of ἀναγνώρισις, leading to a happy termination; while his ‘‘ Wife’’ displeases. Marston’s “ Heart and the World,”’ weak as the play is, is more agreeable than his “ Patrician’s Daughter.’ But, such plays are merely serious comedies. - 7 This is excellently applicable to the plays of Vanbrugh and Cibber.. Compare the conclusions of the ‘* Relapse,’ (Sir Tunbelly excepted,) the ‘‘ Provoked Wife,” etc. As to the ἀποθνήσκει οὐδεὶς ὑπ᾽ oddevos, it is very descriptive of the dueds in a modern or ancient comedy, as in ‘‘ London Assurance,” or in. the ‘Beaux Stratagem,’’ according to Scrub’s description. STi 1 See avery pleasant paper of Addison’s on this subject; “ Spectator,”” No. 42. We know the effect of the skull and bination of the incidents, which is preferable, and the province of a better poet. For it is necessary that the fable should be so composed, that he who hears the things which are transacted, may be seized with horror, and feel pity, from the events, without the.
assistance of the sight; and in this manner any one who hears the fable of C&dipus is affected. But to effect this through spectacle is more inartificial, and requires great expense”. But they who produce not the terrible, but the monstrous alone, through scenic representation, have nothing in common with tragedy. For it is not proper to expect every kind of pleasure from tragedy, but that which is’ ap-‘propriate. Since, however, it is necessary that the poet should procure pleasure from pity: and fear through imitation, it is evident that this must be ef-‘fected by the circumstances. Let us, then, ascertain what kind of events appear to be dreadful or lamentable. But it is necessary that actions of this kind should either be those of friends towards each other, or of enemies, or of neither. If, therefore, an enemy kills an enemy, he does not show any thing which is an object of pity, neither while he does the deed, nor when he is about to do it, except what arises from the deed itself. And this will; be the ‘case, when one of those who are neither friends nor enemies do the same. But when these things happen in friendships*, as when a brother kills a. brother, or a son his father, or a mother her son, or a son his mother, or intends to do it, or does any thing else of the like kind—such subjects are to be sought for. “One must not, therefore, [completely] alter the received fables. I mean, for instance, such as the 2. The monstrous not tragic, 3. The proper ‘ pleasure to be derived κάτ trae gedy, 4, What actions are dreadful or lamentable.
5. Furfable of Clytemnestra being slain by Orestes, and of ther pre black hangings in the ‘‘ Fair Penitent,”’ the scaffold in “ Venice Preserved,’’ the tomb in ‘‘ Romeo and Juliet,” etc. Twining. But Ritter understands ὄψις to mean the countenance of the actor.
2 “ Xopnyiav generatim pro pretioso et operoso apparatu et apte dici posse et eo intellectu ἢ. 1. accipiendam esse manifeatum est.”’ Ritter.
3.4.5 in the “ Fatal Curiosity ” of Lillo. Twining, | af cepts respecting fable.
6. Examples.
Eriphyle by Alemzon. But it is necessary that the poet should invent the plot, and use in a becoming manner those fables which are handed down. What, however, we mean by [using fables] in a becoming manner, let us explain more clearly. Now, the action may take place in such a way as the ancients have represented it, viz. knowingly with intent; as Euripides represents Medea killing her children. Men may also do an action, who are ignorant of, and afterwards discover their connexion [with, the injured party,| as in the “ Cidipus” of Sophocles. This, therefore, is extraneous to the drama‘, but is in the tragedy itself; as in the “ Alemzon” of Astydamas, or Telegonus in the “ Ulysses Wounded °.” Further still, besides these there is a third mode, when some one is about to perpetrate, through ignorance, an atrocious deed, but makes the discovery before he does it®. And besides these there is no other mode. For it is necessary to act, or not; and that knowing, or not knowing. But of these, to intend to perpetrate the deed knowingly, and not to perpetrate it, is the worst; for it is wicked and not tragical; because it is void of pathos. [ Hence, no poet introduces a character of this kind except rarely; as in the “ Antigone,” in which Hemon [endeavours to kill his father] Creon, [but does not 4 The murder of ‘Laius by G£dipus, his son, is supposed to have happened a considerable time before the beginning of the action. Twining.
5 Of these two dramas nothing more is known than the little that Aristotle here tells us. In the first, the poet adhered so far to history, as to make Alcemzon Kill his mother Eriphyle, but with the improvement, (according to Aristotle’s idea,) of making him do it ignorantly. The story of Telegonus is, that he was a son of Ulysses by Circe; was sent by her in quest of his father, whom he wounded, without knowing him, in a skirmish relative to some sheep, that he attempted to carry off from the island of Ithaca. It is somewhat singular, that the wound is said to have been given with a kind of Otaheite spear, headed with a sharp fish-bone. See Pope’s Odyssey, xi. 167, and the no‘e. Twining.
* Thus wn Talfourd’s “Ion,” Ion discovers Adrastus to be his father, just as he is on the point of murdering him, CHAP. xv.] - POETIC. 435 effect his purpose.]7 ] For the action here ranks in the second place. But it is better to perpetrate the deed ignorantly, and having perpetrated to discover; for then it is not attended with wickedness, and the discovery excites horror. The last mode, however, is the best; I mean, as in the “Cresphontes,” in which Merope is about to kill her son, but does not, in consequence of discovering that he was her son. Thus, too, in the “Iphigenia in Tauris,” in which the sister is going to kill the brother, [but recognises him;] and in the “ Helle,” the son is about to betray his mother, but is prevented by recognising her. Hence, as has been formerly observed, tragedies ‘are not conversant with many families; for poets were enabled to discover incident of this kind in fables, not from art, but from fortune*. They were compelled, therefore, to direct their attention to those families in which calamities of this kind happened.
And thus we have spoken sufficiently concerning the combination of the incidents, and have shown what kind of fables ought to be employed.
CHAP, XV.
WirTH respect to manners, however, there are four things to which one ought to direct attention: one, indeed, and the first, that they be good. But the tragedy will indeed possess manners, if, as was said, the words or the action render any deliberate intention apparent; containing good manners’, if the deliberate intention is good. But manners are to be found in each genus; for both a woman and a slave may be good; though perhaps of these, the one is 7 Ritter condemns this passage. See also Donaldson, Introduction to the Antigone, p. xl.
* i. 6. to history or tradition. [ The interpolation φαῦλον μὲν ἐὰν φαύλη ἢ is rightly thrown out by Ritter..
8.
1. Requisites 0 manners, that they express wooaipeas, 436, ARISTOTLE’S [cHaP. xv less good, and the other is wholly bad’, In the - second place, the manners must be adapted to the persons. For there are manners which are characterized by fortitude, hut_it_is not suited to a woman to be either brave oF ter plde ‘In the third place, the manners must be similar’ For this, as was before observed, differs from making the manners to be good and adapted‘. In the fourth place, they must be uni- eons2l form;’ for if he is anomalous, who exhibits the imitation, and expresses such like manners, at the same time it is necessary that he should be uniformly unequal. The example, however, of depraved manners ‘is indeed not necessary; such, for instance, as that of Menelaus in the “ Orestes,” but an example of unbecoming and unappropriate manners is, the lamentation of Ulysses in the tragedy of “ Scylla,°” and the speech of Menalippe; and the example of anomalous manners in-the Iphigenia in Aulis.. For Iphigenia 2 This is very Euripidean gallantry. Compare Aristoph.
-.8 This is observed, to show the consistence of this first precept with the next. The manners must be drawn as good as may be, consistently with the observance of propriety, with respect to the general character of different sexes, ages, conditions, etc. It might have been objected—* You say the character must be good. But suppose the poet has to represent, for instance, a slave?—the character of slaves in general is notoriously bad.’’—The answer is,—any thing may be good in its kind. Twining.
4 This is very trivial, compared with Horace’s description of the manners suited to different characters. Cf. Ars Poet 5 Of the Scylla nothing is known.—Some fragments remain of “ Menalippe the Wise,” (for this was the title,) a tragedy of Euripides, the subject of which is a curiosity. Menalippe was delivered of two children, the fruits of a stolen amour with Neptune. Τὸ conceal her shame, she hid them in her father’s cow-house; where he found them, and being less of a philosopher than his daughter, took them for a monstrous production of. some of his cows, and ordered them to be burned. Gis daughter, in order to save them, without exposing herself, enters into a long physical argument, upon the principles of Anazagoras, to cure her father of his unphilosophical prejudices about monsters and portentous births, and to convince him that these infants might be the natural children of his cows. Twining.
- cHaP. xv.] ’ POETIC: 437 supplicating does not at all resemble the Iphigenia in the latter part of the tragedy. It is requisite, however,-in the manners as well as in the combination of the incidents, always to investigate, either the necessary or the probable; so that such a person should say or do such things, either necessarily or probably; and that it be necessary or probable, that this thing should. be done after that. It is evident, therefore, 7. _that the solutions of fables ought to happen from the © fable itself, and not as in the “ Medea,®” from the machinery, and in the tragedy called the “Tliad,”. from the particulars respecting the sailing away [from Troy’]. But we must employ machinery in things which are external to the drama, which either happened before, and which it is not possible for men to know, or which happened afterwards, and require to be previously foretold and announced. For we ascribe to the gods the power of seeing all things, but we do not admit the introduction of any thing absurd in the incidents §, but if it is introduced it must be external to the tragedy; as in the “ (édipus” of Sophocles. Since, however, tragedy is an imitation _of better things, it is necessary that we should imitate good painters. For these, in giving an appropriate form to the image, depict the similitude, but increase the beauty®. Thus, also, it is requisite that the poet, in imitating the wrathful and the indolent, and those who are similarly affected in their manners, should form an example of equity, or asperity; such as Agatho and Homer have represented Achilles. These things, indeed, it is necessary to observe; and besides these, such perceptions of the senses as are attendant upon poetry, besides 6 Of Euripides. Medea is carried off, at the end of the tragedy, in a chariot drawn by flying dragons. Twining.
7 Pope’s Iliad, ii. 189, etc. Twining.
8 By incidents of the fable, Aristotle here plainly means all those actions or events which are essential parts of the subject or story, whether previous to the action, and necessary to be known, or included in it, and actually represented in the drama.
9 This seems intended to explain his third precept, of resemblance in the manners; to reconcile it with his first, and to how what sort of ‘ikeness the nature of tragic —— reuires, Twining.
the fable,. not the machinery.
8. Com- Qnrah parison 4 Stone With _, daolien painting W Jr 3. Their use, the necessary ones.‘ For in these, errors are frequently committed. But concerning these things, enough has been said in the treatises already pube lished.
ΓΙ Wuat discovery, however, is, has been before stated. But with respect to the species of recognition, the first indeed is the most inartificial, and that which most poets use through being at a loss, and is effected . through signs. But of these, some are natural, such as the “lance with which the earth-born? race are marked,” or the stars [on the bodies of the sons] in the “Thyestes” of Carcinus. Others are adventitious, and of these some are in the body, as scars; but others are external, such as necklaces; and such as [the discovery] through a small boat, in the “Tyro%.” These signs also may be used in a better or worse manner. ‘Thus Ulysses,‘ through his scar, is in one way known by his nurse, and in another by the swineherds. For the discoveries which are for the sake of credibility, are more inartificial, and all 10 j, e. to the sight, and the hearing; in other words, to actual representation.
1 The reader, who recollects the conclusion of Sect. 14, where the author took a formal leave of the “fable and its requisites,” and proceeded to the second essential part of tragedy, the manners, will hardly be of Dacier’s opinion, who contends that this section is rightly placed. His reasons are erfectly unsatisfactory. Twining, I have enclosed it in mackets, with Ritter.
2 The descendants of the original Thebans, who, according to the fabulous history, sprung from the earth when Cadmus sowed the dragon’s teeth, etc.—This noble race are said to have be distinguished by the natural mark of a lance upon their odies, 3 Sophocles wrote two tragedies of this name, neither of them preserved.—The story of Tyro leads us to suppose, that Aristotle means the little boat, trough, or, as some render it, eradle,in which Tyro had exposed her children, on,’or near, the river: the particular manner of the discovery it would be in vain to guess.
4 See Pope’s Ohya. xix. νυν. 451, etc., and the note there, on v. 461, and xxi. 2 CHAP. XvI.}. POETIC. 439 of them are of this kind; but those which a:e from revolution, as in the “ Washing of Ulysses®,” are better. And those recognitions rank in the second place, which are invented by the poet, on which account they are inartificial. Thus Orestes in the “ Tphigenia” discovers that he is Orestes®. For she indeed recognises her brother through a letter, but Orestes himself speaks what the poet designs, but not what the fable requires; on which account it is near to the above-mentioned error; since he might have introduced some [of the real things as signs]. ‘Thus, too, in the “ Tereus” of Sophocles, the “ voice of the shuttle” [produced a recognition’]. But the third mode of discovery is through memory, from the sensible perception of something by sight, as in the “ Cyprii” of Diczogenes; for on seeing the picture a certain person weeps. And in the “Tale of Alcinous;” for Ulysses, on hearing the lyrist, and recollecting the story, weeps; whence also [all these] were recognised. The fourth mode of discovery is derived from syllogism’, as in the “ Choephore”—a person like 5 The ancients distinguished the different parts of Homer’s poems by different titles accommodated to the different subjects, or episodes; and, in referring to him, they made use of these, not of the division into books. Thus, the part of the xixth book of the Odyssey above referred to, was called The Washing. The Tale of Alcinous was another title, which will presently be mentioned. Twining.
6 I follow Ritter, who supplies “ἰο Iphigenia.”” The older editors interpolated the passage. See Ritter’s note on the following passage. The whole disputation is ‘‘ arguta et obscura,” as the learned critic observes.
7 Taylor’s note is pre-eminently absurd. Tyrwhitt elegantly explains the passage thus: κερκίδος φωνὴ is a quotation from the play, and denotes the web itself, by means of which Philomela explained to her sister Procne the injuries she had suffered from Tereus, since, her tongue being cut out, she could not speak. Cf. Ovid, Met. VI. 424; Hygin. Fab. 45, quoted by Ritter, whose note deserves the student’s attention. As the web is said to speak, which describes, so the shield of Capaneus χρυσοῖς φωνεῖ γράμμασιν, Aisch. Sept. C. Th. 434.
8 Occasioned by reasoning;—i. e. by reasoning, (ΟΣ rather, inference, or conclusion,) in the person discovered. See the note.—It should be remembered, that Aristotle is not, in this chapter, inventing τ rans ty enumerating all the kinds .G 4. Invented recognitions.
5. By me mory.
6. By reasoning.
7. By the misconeeption of the audience.
8. The best is from the circumstances themselves.
440 ARISTOTLE’S fcHaP xyt.
me is arrived—there is no person like me but Orestes,—Orestes, therefore, is arrived. Thus too in the “Iphigenia®” of Polyides the sophist. For it was probable that Orestes would syllogistically conclude, that because his sister had been immolated, it would likewise happen to him to be sacrificed. Thus also in the “ Tydeus”” of Theodectes, a certain person comes to discover his son, and himself perishes". Another example also is in the “ Phinide.” For the women, on seeing the place, inferred what their fate would be, viz. that they must needs perish in this place; for they were exposed in it from their infancy. There is also a certain compound [{discovery }, which is produced from the false inference of the spectator, as in the “ Ulysses the False Messenger.” For he says, he should know the bow, which he had not seen; but the [audience], as if he must be known through this, on this account infer falsely. The best recognition, however, of all, is that which arises from the things themselves, astonishment being excited through probable circumstances; as in the “‘(Edipus” of Sophocles and the “Iphigenia;” (for it is probable that she would be willing to send letters;) since such things alone are without fictitious signs and necklaces”. But the recognitions which rank in the second place, are those which are derived from syllogism. }: possible or practicable; but only classing and examining such as he found in use, or could recollect, in the tragedies and epic poems of his time. ‘Twining. i ® The subject appears to have been the same as that of th Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides. We are to suppose, that Orestes was discovered to his sister by this natural exclamation, at the moment when he was led to the altar of Diana to be sacrificed. Twining.
10 Of this and the preceding tragedy, we know nothing but what we learn here: i. 6. that in the one, a father, and in the other, the daughters of Phineus, were discovered, and, probably, saved, by those exclamations. Twining. 4 11 See Ritter. Nothing of this play is known.
12 ΑἹ] this passage is hopelessly corrupt.
CRAP XVII. ] POETIC. ati Ir is necessary, however, that the poet should form the plots, and elaborate his diction, in such a manner that he may as much as possible place the thing before his own eyes', For thus the poet perceiving most acutely, as if present with the transactions themselves, will discover what is becoming, and whatever is repugnant will be least concealed from his views An evidence of this is the fault with which Carcinus is reproached. For Amphiaraus had left the temple, which was concealed from the spectator, who did not perceive it, and the piece was driven’ from the stage in consequence of the indignation of the spectators. For the poet as much as possible should co-operate with the gestures [of the actor]; since those are naturally most adapted to persuade who are themselves under the influence of passion. Hence, also, he agitates others who is himself agitated®, and he excites others to anger who is himself most truly enraged. Hence, poetry is the province either of one who is naturally clever, or of one who is insane‘.
1 i. e. place himself in the position of a spectator. Ritter observes that σόν συνίσταντα must be supplied.
2 ἐκπίπτειν is properly used of the condemnation of a piece. See Hemst. on Lucian, Nigrin. § 8. In Demosth. de Coron. p- 315, ed. Reisk. it is applied to the actor. Cf. Bud. Com. L. Gr. p. 536. There isa pun upon the double meaning of the verb. Amphiaraus went (ἐξέπεσε) away, and the piece was condemned (ἐξέπεσε) in consequence.
8 But Twining, in a long and learned note, expresses his opinion that χειμαένει may be used in its proper neuter sense, and that the meaning may be as follows: ‘‘ The poet should work himself, as far as may be, into the passion he is to represent, by even assuming the countenance and the gestures which are its natural expressions. For they, of course, have most probability and truth in their imitation, who actually feel, in some degree, the passion: and no one expresses agitation of mind (xetuaiver) so naturally, (ἀληθινώτατα,) as he who is really agitated, (χειμαζόμενος,) or expresses anger (χαλεπαίνει) so naturally, as he who is really angry (ὀργιζόμενος).᾽ 4 “In an enthusiasm allied to madness,” is Twining’s translation, which is all — oe means to say, underες 1. Rules for realizing ideas.
2. The poet should feel what he writes, 8. and should form a general sketch of his plot.
4, The episodes must be suitable 5. and short.
442 ARISTOTLE’S lcwar. xvit.