For of these characters, the one is easily fashioned, but the other is prone to ecstasy. It is likewise necessary that the poet should in a general way lay down the fables composed by others, and those which he composes himself, and afterwards introduce episodes and lengthen out Ne play]. But I say that he should give a general sketch after this manner. Thus, for instance, in the “Iphigenia®,” a certain virgin on the point of being sacrificed, and vanishing from the view of those who were to sacrifice her, and being brought to another country in which it was a law to sacrifice strangers to a certain goddess, she is appointed the priestess of these rites. Some time after, it happened that the brother of the priestess came to this place; [but on what account? Because some god had ordered him, for a certain reason which does not pertain to the general view of the tragedy, } to come thither, [but why he did so is foreign to the fable®]. The brother, therefore, coming, and being made captive, discovered [his sister], when he is going to be sacrificed; whether, as Euripides says, [ by an epistle, | or, as Polyides feigns, speaking according to probability, because he said, it was not only requisite that the sister, but that he also should be sacrificed:—and hence safety arises. After these things, the poet having given names to the persons, should insert the episodes; and he must be careful that the episodes be appropriate; as that of the insanity through which Orestes was taken captive, and his being saved through expiation. In dramas, therefore, the episodes are short, but by these the epopee is lengthened. For the fable of the Odyssey is short, viz. a certain man wandering for many years, and persecuted by Neptune, and left alone. And besides this, his domestic affairs being so circumstanced, that his standing ‘‘ eos, qui animo commotiores sunt,” as Ritter renders it. On the connexion between poetic enthusiasm and madness, cf. Plato, Ion. p. 145. C. etc. Pheedr. p. 344. B. Lam. with Clemens Alex. Strom. vi. p. 827. Theodoret. Sepam. IL. Ὁ, 20. Cicer. de Div. I. 37.
5 Eur. Iph. Taur. * The passage is interpolated. See Ritter.
CHAP. XVII] POETIC. 443 wealth is consumed Dy suitors, and stratagems are plotted against his son. But driven by a tempest, he returns, and making himself known to certain persons, he attacks the suitors, and is himself saved, but destroys his enemies, This, therefore, is the peculiarity of the fable, but the rest is episode.
[In every tragedy, however, there is a complication and development’. And external circumstances indeed, and some of those that are internal, frequently form the complication; but the rest the development. I call, however, the complication, the whole of that which extends from the beginning to the last part, from which there is a transition to good fortune; but I call the development that part which extends from the beginning of the transition to the end. Thus in the Lynceus of Theodectes, the past transactions, and the capture of the son, are the complication; but the part which extends from the charge of murder to the end, is the development. But of tragedy there are four species; for so many parts of it have also been enumerated. And one species is the complicated, of which the whole is revolution and discovery; another, the pathetic, such as the tragedies of Ajax and Ixion; another, the moral’, such as the Phthiotides and the Peleus; but the Literally, the tyiwg and untying. With the French, Neud and Denouwement are convenient and established terms. I hope I shall be pardoned for avoiding our awkward expressions of the ixtrigue and unravelling of a plot, etc. I could find no terms less exceptionable than those I have used. Twining.
2 j. e. in which the delineation of manmers or character is predominant. Our language, I think, wants a word to express thie sense of the Greek ἠθικὸν, and the Latin, moratum. Mannered has, I believe, sometimes been used in this sense; but so seldom, as to sound awkwardly. We know nothing of the subjects here given as examples. Twining. — at.
1. Complication and development.
2. Four species of tragedy; 3. all which the poet should underatand.
4 On epic tragedy.
δ. Illustrations.
fourth is another such as the “ Phorcidcs®” and the “Prometheus,” and the tragedies which represent what passes in Hades. It is especially necessary, therefore, that the poet should endeavour to have all these species; or at least that he should have the greatest and most of them, especially since men of the present age calumniate the poets. For as there have been good poets in each part of tragedy, they now expect one poet to excel in all the parts. But it is right to call tragedy different and the same, though not perhaps with any reference to the fable; but this [may be the case with those] of which there is the same plot and solution. But many poets complicate well, and develope badly‘. But both these should always be applauded®. But it is necessary to recollect, as has been often observed, that we must not make tragedy an epic system. Now, I call that tragedy an epic system, which consists of many fables; as if some one should compose a tragedy from the whole fable of the Iliad. For in the Iliad, on account of its length, the parts receive an appropriate magnitude. But in dramas, the effect produced would be very contrary to expectation. The truth of this is indicated by such as have represented [in one tragedy] the whole destruction of Troy, and not some part of it, as the “Niobe” or “Medea” of Euripides, and who have not acted like Kschylus; for these have either been condemned, 3 Eschylus wrote a tragedy so named. It is difficult te imagine what he could make of these three curious personages, who were born old women, lived under ground, and had but one eye among them, which they used by turns; carrying it, I suppose, in a case, like a pair of spectacles. Such is the tale! Twining.
4 No fault so common: see note 59. It was with the Greek tragedians, probably, as with Shakspeare.—‘‘ In many of his plays the latter part is evidently neglected. When he found himself near the end of his work, and in view of his reward, he shortened the labour, to snatch the profit. He therefore remits his efforts where he should most vigorously exert them, and his catastrophe is improbably produced, or imperfectly represented.”? Johnson’s Pref. to Shakspeare. Twining.
5 This passage is contradictory and unintelligible. Ses Bitter, who condemns the whole as spurious.
CHAP. XVIII. | POETIC. 443 or contend without success; since Agatho also failed in this alone. But in revolutions, and in simple actions, those poets admirably effect their aim. For this is tragical, and has a moral tendency. This, however, takes place when a wise but a depraved man, such as Sisyphus, is deceived; and a brave but unjust man is vanquished. But this is probable, as Agatho says. For it is probable that many things may take place contrary to probability. It is necessary likewise to conceive the chorus to be one of the players® and a part of the whole, and that it co-operates with the players, not as in Euripides’, but as in Sophocles. But with other tragedians, the choral songs do not more belong te that fable, than to any other tragedy; on which account the chorus sing detached pieces, inserted at pleasure’, of which Agatho was the inventor. What difference, however, - Actoris partes chorus, officitumque virile Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus, Quod non proposito conducat et hereat apte.
7? This expression does not, I think, necessarily imply any stronger censure of Euripides, than that the choral odes of his tragedies were, in general, more loosely connected with the subject, than those of Sophocles; which, on examination, would, I believe, be found true. For that this is the fault here meant, not the improper ‘‘ choice of the persons who compose the chorus,” as the ingenious translator of Euripides understands, is, I think, plain from what immediately follows; the connexion being this:—‘‘ Sophocles is, in this respect, most perfect; Euripides Jess so; as to the others, their choral songs are total’y foreign to the subject of their tragedies.” See Potter’s Euripides—Postscript to the Trojan Dames. Warton’s Essay on the Genius, etc., of Pope, vol. i. p. 71.
8. It is curious to trace the gradual extinction of the chorus. At first, it was all; then, relieved by the intermixture of dialogue, but still principal; then, subordinate to the dialogue; then, digressive, and ¢li connected with the piece; then, borrowed from other pieces at pleasure—and so on, to the fiddles and the act-tunes, at which Dacier is so angry. (See his note, p. 335.) The performers in the orchestra of a modern theatre are little, I believe, aware, that they occupy the place, and may consider themselves as the lineal descendants, of the ancient chorus. Orchestra (6pxno7Tpa) was the name of that part cf the ancient theatre which was appropriated to the chorus. ([Jul. Pollux, IV. p. 423.]
7. The business of the chorus 1, Diction and sentiment.
4. How far the poet should be does it make, to sing inserted pieces, or to adapt the diction of one drama to another, or the whole episode?
Or the other parts of tragedy enough has now been said. But it remains that we should speak concerning the diction and the sentiments. The particulars, therefore, respecting the sentiments, are unfolded in the treatise on Rhetoric, to which it more properly belongs. But those things pertain to the sentiments, which it is requisite to procure by a reasoning process. And the parts of these are, to demonstrate, to refute, and to excite the passions; such as pity, or fear, or anger, and such like; and besides these, to . amplify and extenuate. It is evident, however, that in things, also, it is requisite to derive what is useful from the same forms, when it is necessary to procure objects of pity, or things that are dreadful, or great, or probable. Except that there is this difference, that things in tragedy ought to be rendered apparent without teaching, but in an oration they are to be shown by the speaker, and in consequence of the speech. For what employment would there be for the orator, if the things should appear [ of themselves | pleasing, and not through the speech? But of things pertaining to diction, there is one species of theory respecting the forms of speech’, which it is the pro- 1 What are we to understand by these σχήματα λέξεως P— The learned reader will immediately see, that, as Victorius has observed, they are not to be confounded with those σχήματα λέξεως, of which we hear so much from Cicero, Quintilian, Dion. Hal. etc.,—those “‘ figure verborum,”’ which are opposed to the σχήματα διανοίας, the “ figure mentis, sententiarum,” etc. Indeed, no such division of σχήματα is, I believe, to be found in Aristotle. It seems to have been the invention of the later rhetoricians; and how little they were agreed, as to the ~ number and the species of these σχήματα, the propriety of the division itself, and even the precise sense of the word σχῆμα, may be seen in Quintilian ix. 1 —The σχήματα λέξεως of Aris- CHAP. xx.] POETIC. 447 vince of the actor to know, and of him who is a master artist in this profession. Thus, for instance, [it is requisite he should know, ] what a mandate is, what a prayer, narration, threats, interrogation and answer are, and whatever else there may be of this kind. For from the knowledge or ignorance of these, the poetic art incurs no blame of any moment. For who would think that Homer errs in what he is reproved for by Protagoras? viz. that while he fancies he prays, he commands, when he says, “ The wrath, O goddess, sing.” For, says he, to order a thing to be done, or not to be done, is a mandate. Hence, this must be omitted as a theorem pertaining to another art, and not to poetry.
CHAP. XxX. * The parts of Diction.
(‘Ce all diction, however, the following are the parts; viz. the letter, the syllable, the conjunction, the noun, the verb, the article, the case, and the sentence. The totle in this place, are plainly such as would have been denominated by later writers, σχήματα d.avoias—figures of the thought or sense. Indeed we find them actually enumerated among the figures of that class. See Dionys. Halicarn. de Struct. etc. Sect. 8.—So Quintilian; “ Figuras quoque mentis, gue σχήματα διανοίας dicuntur, res eadem recipit omnes, in quas nonnulli diviserunt species dictorum, (i. 6. of jokes, bone mots). Nam et interrogamus, et dubitamus, et affirmamus, et minamur, et optamus.”’
I see, therefore, not the least reason why the expression σχῆμα λέξεως should not be rendered here exactly as in the other passages above referred to, “‘ figura orationis ’’—form, or configuration, of speech. For λέξις; it tiust be observed, is here used, not in the particular sense of diction, or style and manner of expression, (as it is used Rhet. iii. 8,) but in the general sense of λόγος, speech, as we find it used in the beginning of the next chapter.
1 This chapter is an evident interpolation, and the student will gain but little benefit from its perusal, as the matter of it is incorrect and ill arranged, See Ritter.
acquainte ed with the different applications of diction.
5.
1. The parts of diction.
2. Letters.
3.. Their divisions, 4. and differences.
5. Syllales.
448 ARISTOTLE’S [cuar. xx, letter, therefore, indeed, is an indivisible sound?; yet not every such sound, but that from which an intelligible sound is adapted to be produced. For there are indivisible vocal sounds of brutes, no one of which I call a,letter®} But the parts of this indivisible sound are,;;vowel,;semivowel, and mute. And a vowel, indeed; is that which has an audible sound, without percussion’; such asaando. But a semivowel is that which has an audible sound, with percussion; as 8 and r. And a mute is that which, even with the concurrence of the tongue, has of itself, indeed, no sound, but becomes audible in conjunction with things which have a certain sound; as g and d. But these differ bY the configurations of the mouth, in the parts [of the mouth®] by density and tenuity of aspiration, by length and shortness; and further still, they differ by acuteness and gravity, and by the medium between both these; the theory respecting each of which pertains to the metrical art. But a syllable is a sound without signification, composed from a mute, and an element which has sound [i. e. from a vowel, or semivowel]. Forgr without @ is a syllable®, and also with a, as gra.
2 “Vocal sound,” is Taylor’s translation of φωνή.
3 « Element of diction.” Taylor 4 As Hermann has ventured to call προσβολὴ allisus, I trust I shall be excused for adopting Twining’s quaint, but clear translation. He observes: “ Literally, percussion, i. e. of the tongue against the palate, or teeth, the lips against the teeth, or against each other, and all the other modes of consonant articulation. See Hermes, iii. 2. p. 322, where they are caiiod ‘ contacts.? Dacier makes sad confusion here, both in his version and his notes, by confounding the names of the consonants, when vowels are prefixed, or put after them, to make them separately pronouncible, (Te, eF, eL, etc.,) with their powers in composition—as elements of words. Thus, it is strictly true, that S and R have a sound, without the assistance of a vowel, merely by their mode of articulation. But D, or G, have no sound at all by themselves. The semivowels arel,m,n,r,s. (Dion. Halicarn. De Struct. Orat. sect. 14.)”
δ. i. e. the different organs of speech, from which letters are denominated nasal, dental, labial, etc. Taylor.
6 Gr is an instance of a syllable composed of a mute and ἃ semivowel; and g ra of a syllable composed of a mute, 8 vowel, and a semivowel. Taylor. © But see Ritter CHAP. XX. ] POETIC. 419 The study, however, of the differences of these, pertains also to the metrical art. But ἃ conjunction is 6. Cona sound void of signification, which neither impedes J¥"°4nor produces one significant sound adapted to be composed from many sounds, and which may be _placed cither at the beginning or the end of the period, unless something requires that it should be placed by itself at the beginning; such as μὲν, ἤτοι, δή. Or it is a sound without signification, composed from more sounds than one, but naturally adapted to produce one significant sound. An article is a sound 7. Article | without signification, which shows the beginning, or ὃς...end, or distinction of a word’; as ro φημί, and τὸ περί, and others of the like kind. Or it is a sound without signification, which neither impedes nor produces one significant sound naturally adapted to be _composed from many sounds, both in the extremes and in the middle. But a noun is a composite sound, 8. Noun. significant without time, of which no part is of itself significant. For in double nouns, we do not use the parts as of themselves significant. Thus, in the word Theodorus, [though Theos signifies God and doron a gift, | yet doron signifies nothing. A verb is a com- 9. Verb. posite sound, significant with time, of which no part is of itself significant, in the same manner also as in nouns. For man or white does not signify time; but he walks, or he did walk, signify, the former indeed ν the present, and the latter the past time. But case 1(. Case pertains to noun or verb. And one case, indeed, fin nouns | signifies that something is said of this thing, or is attributed ¢o* this thing, and the like; 7 This description is most obscure; but the sense seems to be, that an article is a sound which of itself does not, signify any thing definite, but merely serves to indicate a significant sound, before or after which it is placed, or which it distinguishes from other words. Taylor. Ritter denies that there is any sense at all, an opinion in which the reader will probably acquiesce.
8 These only, in modern grammar, are called cases: in Arissotle, number, whether in noun or verb, and the tenses, and modes, (or moods,) of verbs, are comprehended under that term; because cases (3wrwoers—cases) are endings, terminations, inflections, etc., and, in the learned languages, ail the 12. Its unity.
150 ARISTOTLE’S [cuar. xxi.
but another is that which pertains to one thing or many things; as men, or man. And another case pertains to acting*®, such as what relates to interrogation or demand. For did he walk? Or walkisa case of ‘a verb according to these species. And a sentence is a composite significant sound, of which certain parts of themselves signify something; for not every sentence is composed from nouns and verbs, (since the definition of man” is a sentence without a verb,) but there may be a sentence without verbs. A sentence, however, will always have some part significant; as in the sentence Cleon walks, the word Cleon is significant. But a sentence is one in a twofold respect; for it is either that which signifies one thing, or that which becomes one from many by conjunction". Thus the Iliad, indeed, is one by conjunction; but the definition of. man is one, because it signifies one thing. | ἊΣ On Nouns and Metaphors, 1. The species of ‘nouns.
ὙΥΊΤΗ respect to the species of a noun, one is simple; and I call the simple noun that which is not comabove-mentioned differences of meaning are expressed by different terminations. ‘The French use chute, the literal translation of casus, in the sense of termination—* La chute d’une periode,” etc. And fall is used, in our poetical language, for a close, or cadence, in music.
That strain again—it had a dying FALL. Merch. of Venice.
And so Milton in Comus, v. 25]. Twining.
9 These modes are the same which he calls figures of speech, Sect. 23. Twining.
10 The definition alluded to appears to be this, literally rendered: ‘A terrestrial animal with two feet”? (ζῷον πεζὸν, δίπουν). Twining.
11 Compare wept ‘Epunv. cap. v. p. 38.—Analyt. Post. lib. ii. cap. 10. p. 469, E.—Metaphys. vil. 4. p. 910, D. (where uses τῷ συνέχει, as equivalent to συνδέσμῳ,) and viii.
CHAP. XXiI.' POETIC. 45!
posed from significan 5: but another is twofold. And this either consists of that which is sig- © nificant, and that which is without signification, or of both parts significant. A noun also may be triple and quadruple, as is the case with many of the nouns of the Megaliote'; such as Hermocazcoxanthus?. But every noun is either proper or foreign®, or metaphorical, [or ornamental‘,] or invented, or extended, or contracted, or altered. But I call thata proper name, which is used by every one; and that a foreign® name which is used by other nations. Hence it is evident that the same noun may be both foreign and proper, though not to the same people. For the word Xiyvvorv® is proper to the Cyprians, 931, C. Twining. Ritter remarks, that the compiler of this chapter did not understand the passages he copied.
ΕἼ have read, in some ludicrous book, of a country that was “lost by the ignorance of geographers.’’ This seems to have been the case of these Megaliote, if such a people ever existed. They are no where recorded.—Dacier reads, μεγαρι-ζόντων----“ ceux qui disent de grandes choses:’’ and cites Hesychius—Meyapifovres—peyaha λέγοντες. But this is too distant from the present reading, Μεγαλιωτῶν. Winstanley’s conjecture—peyarsiwv, ws, is somewhat nearer, and, in other respects, preferable: but it is, I think, a strong presumption against its truth, that Aristotle constantly uses οἷον, when he gives an instance; never, as far as I recollect, ws.
I have sometimes thought it not very improbable, that the passage might originally have stood thus: τῶν péyadA Διω-ΚΟΝτων: i. 6. of those who affect, aim at, are fond of, grandeur and pomp of expression; who love hard words, as we say. Nothing more comncon than this sense of d:wxew. Twining.
. Donaldson, Theatre of the Greeks, p. 27, pt. 2, adopts Tyrwhitt’s conjecture, μεγαλείων ὡς, as being confirmed by Xenoph. Mem. II. 1, § 34, and renders it, “‘ the bombastic expressions.’ Ritter prefers πολλαπλομεγάλωπος, as an example of this kind of word, but Donaldson seems right.
2 This is a noun composed from the names of the three rivers Hermus, Caicus, and Xanthus.
3 Cf. Rhet. iii. 1 and 2.
¢ Ritter condemns the addition of κόσμος, as it has no definition. > 5 Ritter remarks that γλώτται are both provincialisms and ebsotete words.
2. Their divisions 3. Proper and foreign.
4. Netaphor.
5. Different metaphors exbut foreign to us. ‘But a metaphor’ is the transposition of a noun from its _proper signification, either from the génus to the species, or from the species te emplified.
the genus; or from species to species, οἵ according to the analagous. I call, however, a transposition from genus to species, such as, ov Secure in yonder port my vessel ‘stands’. f For to be moored is a species of standing. But a transposition from species to genus is such as, Ten thousand valiant deeds Ulysses has achieved®. For ten thousand is a great number, and is now used instead of many.) And a transposition from species to species is such as, aa The brazen falchion/drew away)his life. And, ΤΡ Cut by the ruthless sword 9, For here to draw away, is used instead of to cut; and ¢o cut is used instead of to draw away; sitice both imply the taking something away. But I call it analogous, when the relation of the second term to the first is similar to that of the fourth to the third; \ for then the fourth is used instead of the second, or the “second instead of the fourth. [And sometimes the proper term is added to the relative terms'!.] I say, for instance, a cup has a similar relation to Bacchus that a shield has to Mars. Hence, a shield may be called the cup of Mars, and a cup the shield of Bacchus. Again, evening has the same relation to day that old age has to life. One may therefore say that 7 Aristotle understands metaphor in a more extended sense than we do, for we only consider the third and fourth of the kinds enumerated by him, as metaphors. Our usurpation of the word was in vogue in Cicero’s time. See de Orat. III. 38, sqq- Ritter.
10 This, and the next species only, answer to what we call metaphor—the metaphor founded on resemblance. The two first species belong to the trope denominated, since Aristotle’s time, Synecdoche. Twining.
11 This is perfectly out of place and useless. See Ritter.
(iy ins ν CHAP. χχι. POETIC.. 453 evening is the old age of day, and that old age is the evening of life; or as Empedocles calls it, ‘‘ The setting of life’.” In some instances, also, wheré tlere 7. Means is no analogous name, this method may be no less Στὰ similarly employed. Thus, to scatter grain is to sow; them. but there is no name for the scattering of light from the sun, and yet this has a similar relation to the sun that sowing has to grain. Hence, it is said, Sowing his god-created flame.
This mode of metaphor may likewise be used differ-. 8, ently, when, calling a thing by a foreign name, something belonging to it is denied of it; as if one should “call a shield not the cup of Mars, but the wineless cup. But an invented noun is that, in short, which, 9. Invennot being adopted by others, is introduced by the poet tedwords. himself. Forit appears that there are certain nouns of this kind; as substituting ἔρνυγες instead of κέρατα for horns’, and calling a priest dpnrho™, instead of ἱερεύς. And a word is extended or contracted, partly 10. Exby using a vowel longer than the proper one, or by ag inserting a syliable; and partly by taking something tracted. away from it. An extended noun, indeed, is such as πόληος for πόλεως, and πηληϊάδεω for πηλείδου; but the contracted, such as κρῖ, and δῶ ὃ; and, μία γίνεται ἀμφοτέρων of", ———The sight of both is one.
And a word is changed when the poet leaves part of 11. it, and invents part; as, Changed, 12 “Thy sun is set, thy spring is gone.” Gray, Ode on Spring. “Yet hath my night of life some memory.” Shakspeare, Com. of Errors—last scene. Twinmg 13 i. e. branches; which we also use for the horns of a stag. But Aristotle means a new word, not a new application merely of a word already in use. Twining.
14 A supplicator; literally, a prayer, taken in the sense of one who prays; as seer is used for prophet. Twining.
15 Koi is used Il. E. 196. Aw, 1]. A. 425. Twining.
16 Part of a verse of Empedocles, quoted by Strabo, p. 364, ed, Cantab, genders.
1. Two requisites of diction, clearness, and freedom from meanness, How produced.
sults and effects of the different kinds of words.
454 ARISTOTLE’S [CHAP XXIk Δεξιτερὸν κατὰ μαζόν.
In the right breast "7, Instead of δεξιόν. ["*Further still, of nouns some are masculine, others feminine, and others between, [or neuter]. And the masculine, indeed, are such as end in ν, and p, and o, and such as are composed from o; but these are two, Ψ and é. The feminine nouns are such as are composed from vowels, and always end in long vowels; as, for instance, in ἡ and ὠ, or in a of the doubtful. Hence it happens that the number of terminations for masculine and feminine are equal; for the terminations of ~ and é are the same. No noun, however, ends in a mute, or in a short vowel; and only three nouns end in 4, viz. μέλι, κόμμι, and πέπερι. But five end in v; viz. πῶῦ, νᾶπυ, γόνυ, δόρυ, and ἄστυ. And the neuter nouns end in these, and in ν and ec. | A CHAP. XXII. The subject of Diction continued, THE virtue of diction, however, consists in being perspicuous, and not mean’. ‘The diction, therefore, is most perspicuous, which is composed from proper nouns, but then it will be mean. But an example of this is the poetry of Cleophon and Sthenelus. It will, however, be elevated, and remote from the vular idiom, by employing unusual words. But I call unusual words, such words as are foreign, the metaphorical, the extended, and every word except the proper [name of a thing]. If, however, [a poet] wholly employ such words as these, it will be either an enigma, or a barbarism> If, therefore, it were 18 This following passage is false in its statements, and totallw foreign to Aristotle’s design. Ritter, therefore, has rightly condemned it.
1 Of. Rhet, iiie 1, extr. and 2. init. | Ch. >. XXII.} POETIC. 435 composed from metaphors, it would be an enigma; but if from foreign words, a barbarism. For the essence of an enigma is this, to unite things impossible, yet really true*. Now, from the arrangement of the words, itis not possible to effect this, but it may be effected by a metaphor; as “ I sawa man who had glued brass to a man with fire*;” and others of the like kind. [But from the composition of foreign words a barbarism is produced‘.] Hence language should be moderately varied with these. _ Foreign, 3. therefore, metaphorical, ἔτος ornamental | words, and~ “the other species that have been mentioned, will “eause the diction to be neither vulgar nor mean; but “proper words produce perspicuity. But the extend- 4. ing, contracting, and changing of names, contribute in no small degree to the perspicuity of the diction, without vulgarity. For the use of words in a way different from their proper and usual signification, causes the diction to be not vulgar; but the adoption of words in their accustomed meaning, renders it perspicuous. Hence those do not blame rightly, who 5. Objeefind fault with this mode of speech, and like the an- pen Po cient Euclid ridicule the poet, [objecting] that verse might easily be composed, if one permit the quantity of syllables to be lengthened at pleasure, making lambics even in common discourse; as ἤτοι Χάριν εἶδον ΜΜαραθῶννάδε βαδίζοντα. And,: Οὐκ ἄν γ᾽ ἐράμενος τὸν ἐκείνου ἐλλέβορουϑ.
2 τὸ λόγοντα ὑπάρχοντα ἀδύνατα συνάψαι, “ to put together things apparently inconsistent and impossible, and at the same time saying nothing but what is true.’”? Twining.
3 Rhet. iii, 2. κόλλησιν εἶπε τὴν τῆς σικύας προσβολήν. The operation of cupping is meant. Compare Celsus ii. 11, and Almeloy. on Ceelius Aurel. Chronic, ii. 1. § 394. Rhod, on Scribon. Larg. Compos. xlvi. The fire alludes to the burnt tow (dinamentum) used to exhaust the air in the cupping glass.
4 Apparently a gloss. See Ritter.
δ It is of little use to attempt to settle the reading of these “nonsense verses.” Ritter observes that the fault probably lay in pronouncing ita ἐρράμενος. See his notes.
H 3.
oS 456 ARISTOTLE’S fcuar. xxn It is evident, therefore, that to be detected using this mode of diction 16 ridiculous) [But measure is common to all the par iction ®,| For it would produce the same effect, to make an improper and ridiculous use of metaphors, foreign words, and other forms of diction. But how great a difference is made by the appropriate use of them, may be seen in epic poetry, by putting the words in metre. And he who transfers proper names into foreign words, into metaphors, and the other forms, will see that what we have said is true. Thus, for instance, Atschylus and Euripides made the same Iambic verse; but by only changing one word from its proper and usual to a foreign signification, the one verse appears beautiful, and the other mean. For /Xschylus indeed, in his Philoctetes, writes, A cancerous ulcer feeds upon my foot.
But Euripides, instead of ἐσθέει, feeds, uses the word θοινᾶται, banquets on. And, Nov δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν ὀλίγος Te Kal οὐτιδανὸς Kal ἄκικυς, by inserting proper [and common ] words, it will be, Νῦν δέ μ᾽ ἐὼν μικρός Te kai ἀσθενικὸς Kai derdys’. And, Aidpov ἀεικέλιον καταθεὶς, ὀλίγην Te τράπεζαν. Aippov μοχθηρὸν καταθεὶς, μικράν Te τράπεζαν 5.
δ Twining renders, ‘in the employment of all the species of unusual words, moderation is necessary.’ But this meaning can scarcely be elicited from the words. See Ritter, who condemns the passage as an interpolation.
7 In this verse Polyphemus complains that he was deprived of sight by Ulysses, a Kittle, weak, vile man. But Homer, instead of using the word μικρὸς, little, uses ὀλίγος, which signifies few. Instead of ἀσθενικὸς, puny, he uses οὐτιδανὸς, which signifies a man of no account; and ἄκικυς, powerless, instead of ἀειδὴς, obscure. Taylor. Cf. Od. ix. 515.
8 In this verse, which is from the 21st book of the Odyssey, Homer, for the purpose of signifying an ignoble seat, calls it by a foreign word, ἀεικέλιον, and ne’, by the usual word, μοχθηρόν; and he calls the table, not μικρὰν, small, Lut ὀλίγην, few. Taylor. Cf. Od. xxi. 259.
CHaP. XXII." POETIC. 457 Or change, ἠϊόνες βοόωσιν (the shores rebellow®) to niovec κράζουσιν (the shores cry out). [9 Again, 8. Fur-Ariphrades used to ridicule the tragic poets for em- a obploying modes of diction, which no one would use in πον ἢ common conyersation; such as δωμάτων ἄπο, and not ἀπὸ δωμάτων, i. 6. home from, and not from home; σέθεν [for σοῦ]; ἐγὼ dé νιν", and ᾿Αχιλλέως πέρι, and not περὶ ᾿Αχιλλέως, i. 6. Achilles about, and not about Achilles; and other expressions of the like kind.
For all such forms of language, because they are not in common use, remove vulgarity from the diction.
But this he did not know.] It is, however, a great 9. Proper _thing to use each of the above-mentioned modes in a scab: becoming manner; and also compound ‘and foreign words. words. But the greatest thing is to employ meta- °)| _ ‘phors well. __For this alone cannot be acquired from "| another, but it is an indication of an excellent genius; since to employ metaphors well, is to discern similitude”. But of words, the compound are chiefly 10. as suited to dithyrambic verse, the foreign to heroic, eer tas and metaphors to Iambic verse. And in heroic verse, of poetry. indeed, all the above-mentioned words are useful; but in Iambics, because they especially imitate common discourse, those words are adapted which may be also used in conversation. And words of this description are, the proper, the metaphorical} [and the ornamental.| And thus much may suffice concerning tragedy, and the imitation in acting’®.
9 Tl. P. 265.—Pope’s line is, ‘* And distant rocks rebellow to the roar.’’ Twining.
® Ritter objects to this clause. Twining, however, admires and commends its conclusion.
1: Cf. Soph. Céd. col. 987.
12 More clearly expressed in Rhet. iii. 11.5, τὸ ὅμοιον ans ἐν FOAL διέχουσι θεωρεῖν, εὐστόχον.
13 These last words appear to me out of place.
a. On narrative oetry. ts similarity to tragedy.
8. Praise of Homer, and comparison with other poets, 458 ARISTOTLE’S [CHAY. ΧΙ On the Epic Poem.
ConcERNING the poetry, however, which is narrative and imitative in metre, it is evident that it ought to have dramatic fables, in the same manner as tragedy, and should be conversant with one whole and perfect action, which has a beginning, middle, and end, in order that, like one whole animal, it may produce its appropriate pleasure!; and that it may not be like the custom of histories, in which it is not necessary to treat of one action, but of one time, viz. of such things as have happened in that time, respecting one or more persons, the relation of each of which things . to the other is just as it may happen. For as the