has less unity [than tragic imitation]; of which this is an indication, that from any kind of [epic] imitation many tragedies may be produced. Hence, if he who writes an epic poem should choose a fable perfectly one, the poem would necessarily either appear short, as if curtailed, or if it should be accompanied with length of metre, it would seem to be languid’. But if he should compose one fable from many fables, I mean, if the poem should consist of many aetions, it would not possess unity. ‘Thus, the Iliad and Odyssey contain many such parts, which of themselves possess magnitude, though these poems are composed, as much as possible, in the most excellent 4 Taylor has gone fearfully astray in his version, “ for πού imitating free women’’! The negative particle belongs to the adjective. Twining observes: ‘‘as no actresses were admitted on the Greek stage, their capital actors must frequently have appeared in female parts, such as Electra, Iphigenia, Medea, etc. This is sufficiently proved by many passages of ancient authors; and among others, by a remarkable story of Polus, an eminent Greek Tragic actor, told by Aulus Gellius.”
CHAP. XXVI-] POETIC. 473 manner, and are most eminently the imitation of one action. If, therefore, tragedy excels in all these 7. particulars, and besides this, in the work of art, (for neither tragic nor epic imitation ought to produce a casual pleasure, but that which has been stated, ) it is evident that it will be more excellent than the epopee, in consequence of attaining its end ina greater degree. And thus much concerning tragedy, 8. and the epopee, as to themselves, their species, and their parts, their number, and their difference, what the causes are of their being good or bad, and also concerning the objections which may be made to them, and the solutions of the objections.
QUESTIONS ON ARISTOTLE’S POETIC, CHAP, I.
Exptalin Aristotle’s notion of imitation.
To what different arts does it apply?
In what manner do these themselves differ?
How do you prove that Poetry is an art?
In what does the poet agree with, in what differ from, the historian?
What does Aristotle say on the subject of metre?
What are the objects of (dramatic) imitation, and what. inference respecting moral character is thence derived?: What parallel does Aristotle draw between the conduct of painters and poets in this respect? How also do tragedy a Pe ea differ?
Explain the three modes of imitation. State the traditional derivations of tragedy and comedy. Are they to be regarded as genuine? | Give Aristotle’s views on the physical and sensitive causes of poetry.
How did men’s dispositions actuate their choice of subject and metre ἢ Were all Homer’s poems of a grave cast?
What analogy do his works respectively bear to tragedy and comedy?
What changes took place in the different styles?
Trace the progress of tragedy from its earliest elements, and explain the respective improvements made by Adschylus and Sophocles.
What does Aristotle say on the natural affinity of metres to ordinary life?
CHAP. ν᾿, With what restrictions are we to regard comedy as μίμησις φαυλοτέρων ὃ Define τὸ γελοῖον.
Are the changes through which comedy has passed as well known as those of tragedy, and what appears to have been the reason?
What do you read of Epicharmus, Phormis, and Crates?
Trace the analogy between the epopee and tragedy.
CHAP, VI.
Define tragedy, μελοποιΐα, λέξις, rhythm, harmony, and ὄψες.
Enumerate the parts of tragedy that constitute its quality.
What remark does Aristotle make respecting the manners of modern tragedies?
What parts of tragedy convey most delight?
What fault is usually committed?
Define διανοία.
Define a poetic whole, and its parts, How is beauty concerned therein? What limits does Aristotle set to the length of tragedy ' CHAP. VIII.
Define fable. What errors in construction do poets now commit? What events are the best to select?
CHAP. IX, Should a poet narrate real events? if not, what kind are best suited?
But may not real and probable events sometimes coincide?
Define poetical probability.
What is the superiority of Poetry over history?
Define universal.
What are the subjects most popular in tragedy?
Of what must the poet be a contriver?
Which fables and simple actions are worst?
Define them.
What kind of perfect actions must be imitated in tragedy?
Give an example of accidents seeming to proceed from design.
Define a simple action.
Define revolution and discovery, and give some examples Give an account of pathos. Describe the parts of a tragedy according to its guantity.
Give some examples of the best modes of exciting pity and terror, and compare their respective merits.
What character does Aristotle give of Euripides?
Is this remark meant to apply to his Poetry as a whole?
What kind of tragedy is most popular?
Through what reason?
476 QUESTIONS ON Can terror and pity be excited by stage appointments? Is it well to depend upon this means?
Why not? > What actions are truly pitiable, and why?
Give different instances.
What are the four requisites of manners?
Give some examples.
How ought the λύσεις of fables to arise ὃ Where should art aim at matters extraneous to the drama? Whom should we imitate, and how?
Does Aristotle make reference here to any other treatise?
Give some examples of different recognitions. Which does Aristotle consider the best?
How will the poet be best enabled to realize the objects ot actions he imitates?
Who are best capable of persuading, and what inference do you thence derive respecting the character of a poet ἢ What plan should be adopted in setting about a subject?
What follows?
Give Aristotle’s example from Euripides.
‘What do you mean by poetic madness?
What is the character of episodes in epic and tragic Poetry respectively? | Explain the δέσις and λύσις. Give some illustrations.
What do you read concerning λέξις and διανοία ἢ What knowledge properly belongs to the poet? How did Protagoras accuse Homer?
Was it justly?
CHAP. XX. Give an account of the parts of speech.
Explain and illustrate the different kinds of words, and collect what has been said in the Rhetoric on the same subject.
What are the virtues of diction? How are they respectively obtained? _ Quote some of the illustrations. Does this chapter appear to be genuine?
CHAP. XXIII.
What are the requisites of narrative Poetry?
In what does its form differ from that of history? Illustrate this by an example.
What was Homer’s conduct in respect to episodes? What do you know of the Cyprica, the Little Iliad?
Describe the forms of epopee, and their similarity to tho of tragedy. Collect all that Aristotle says of Homer’s excellence in the different departments of poetry. ᾿ What do you read of the heroic metre? Explain Aristotle’s views respecting possibility and probability.
: CHAP. XXV. ‘Give a few specimens of the a:swering <ritical objections CHAP. XXVI. Compare the respective merits of epic and tragic Poetry.
ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE’S POETIC, WITH THE ORIGINAL DEFINITIONS.* 1.—1. On Poetry in general, its species and parts.
2. Now, all Poetry is an imitation, as also flute and cithern playing, but they differ either in the means, the objects, or th« manner of their imitation.
6. Epopee imitates μόνον τοῖς λόγοις ψιλοῖς 7} τοῖς μέτροις, either simple or mixed. 7 7. But custom has falsely connected the name of poet with the metre only, and not with their manner of imitation, as is shown in the case of Empedocles and Cheremon.
10, Dithyrambs, nomes, tragedy, and comedy employ all the means of imitation, but some do so all together, others separately.
IIl.—1 But since actions are the objects of imitation, the characters must be bad or good, κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ ra ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες; and hence men must be imitated either as they are, or under a more exalted or more contemptible view, as in the respective paintings of Dionysius, Polygnotus, and Pauson. The same thing holds good in other arts, and in Poetry, as is shown by Cleophon, Homer, and Hegemon respectively.
4, And hence is the difference of tragedy and comedy, ἡ μὲν γὰρ χείρους, ἡ δὲ βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν.
IIi.—1. The third difference is as to the manner of imitation. For the poet may imitate the same object, and by the same means, but he may do so either, 1. 7” narrative, i. 6. by * As I follow the text of Ritter, no analysis will of course be made of such passages as are satisfactorily proved, by this scholar, to be spurious, especially when such passages are but an analysis of what has been already said in the Rhetoric, personating other characters, or in his own person. 11. Or he may represent πάντας we πράττοντας Kal ἐνεργοῦντας.
2. Since, then, there are three differences of imitation (ἐν οἷς τε καὶ ἃ καὶ ὥς), Sophocles agrees with Homer, because both imitate τοὺς σπουδαίους, but with Aristophanes, ὅτι τοὺς πράττοντας. [Hence the Dorians lay an etymological claim to the invention of the Drama and Comedy, δράματα, ὅτι μιμοῦν-ται δρῶντας, κωμφδοὶ, τῇ κατὰ κώμας πλάνῃ ἀτιμαζόμενοι ἐκ τοῦ ἄστεως.
IV. Two natural causes of Poetry. 1. To imitate is the peculiar faculty and pleasure of man, as is evident from his taste for images, pictures, etc., the resemblance even of the worst objects causing satisfaction. And this results from the pleasure felt in learning and forming conclusions.
6. 11. Moreover, rhythm and harmony are equally natural to us, and τὰ μέτρα μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν ἐστί.
Poetry, therefore, gradually arose from the combined exertions of οἱ μιμητικοὶ καὶ οἱ μετρικοί.
7. And of these men οἱ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξ-εις καὶ τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, the one writing hymns and encomia, the others satires, of which Homer’s Margites was the earliest known.
8. Iambic was the fit metre for vituperation. But Homer, by substituting τὸ γελοῖον for ψόγος, suggested comedy, for his Margites has the same relation to comedy as the Iliad to tragedy. 10. And the heroic and vituperative poets respectively became τραγωδιδάσκαλοι and κωμωδοποιοί.
11. Tragedy and comedy were at first ἀυτοσχεδιαστικαί, the one resulting ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, but the other ἀπο τῶν τὰ φαλλικά; they then gradually increased, as improvements presented themselves.
15. A&schylus added a second actor, and gave the pre-eminence to the dialogue (see, however, the note). Sophocles added a third, and introduced scenic decoration. While tragedy remained in its simple, satyric state, the Trochaic metre was employed; but, on its improvement, the Iambic, as being the most naturally adapted to every-day discourse. The ‘Trochaic Poetry was σατυρικὴ καὶ ὀρχηστικωτερὴ, but τὸ ἰσμβεῖον μάλιστα λεκτικὸν τῶν μέτρων.
15. Episodes were also multiplied, and the other parts improved.
V.—1. Κωμῳδία ἐστὶ μίμησις φαυλοτέρων, but not κατὰ πᾶ-σαν κακίαν, but τὸ γελοῖον, which is a part τοῦ αἰσχροῦ. For γελοῖον is defined ἁμάρτημά τι καὶ αἶσχος ἀνώδυνον καὶ οὐ φθαρτικόν.
2. The progress of comedy, from its being for a long time unpopular, is unknown, but its poets are known from the time when it began to possess any form.
3. The inventor of masks, dialogues, and an increased number of actors is likewise unknown. But Epicharmus and Phormis of Sicily first invented comic fables, but Crates was the first Athenian who began ἀφέμενος τῆς ἰαμβικῆς ἰδέας καθόλου ποιεῖν λόγους Kal μύθους, to introduce dialogues and plots of a regular character.
4, Tragic Poetry and epic agree in imitating rove σπουdaiove, but epic differs from it τῷ τὸ μέτρον ἁπλοῦν ἔχειν καὶ ἀπαγγελίαν εἶναι, and also τῷ μήκει. For epopee is ἀόριστος τῷ χρόνῳ, but tragedy ὑπὸ μίαν περίοδον ἡλίου. But at first there was no such restriction.
5. As all the parts of epic Poetry are found in tragic, (but not vice versd,) a judge of the former will be a judge of the latter also.
VI.—2. Tragedy is defined to be μέμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας, μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις δρώντων, καὶ ov δ ἐπαγγελίας, ἀλλὰ δι ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρ-σιν. And ἡδυσμένος λόγος is ὁ ἔχων ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος. But by χωρὶς τῶν εἰδῶν, Aristotle means τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι, καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους.
4. And since tragedy imitates action, the necessary parts of it must be ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος, μελοποιΐα, and λέξις,Ξεεὴ τῶν μέτρων σύνθεσις.
5. And since action cannot exist but by ἦθος and διανοία, which are its two causes, καὶ κατὰ ravrac καὶ τυγχάνουσι Kai ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες" ἔστι δὲ τῆς μὲν πράξεως ὁ μῦθος μίμησις. 6. For he defines μῦθος to be ἡ σύνθεσις τῶν πραγμάτων" and ἤθη, καθ᾽ ἃ ποιούς τινας εἶναι φαμὲν τοὺς πράττοντας" and διάνοια, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες ἀποδεικνύουσί τι, ἣ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην.
7. Hence there are six parts of tragedy, as far as its guality is concerned, μῦθος, ἤθη, λέξις, διανοία, ὄψις, μελοποιία" οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, δύο μέρη ἐστὶν" ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν" ἃ δὲ μιμοῦν-ται, τρία. καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδὲν.
9. The most important is ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις, for tragedy imitates actions, not men, and manners only as far as they are involved by actions. Hence action is the τέλος of tragedy.
11, For it may exist without manners, but cannot without action: the later authors are imperfect in manners.
12. Nor would a whole string of well mannered incidents please so well as a regular plot.
13. And, moreover, ra μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἣ rpayydia, τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστὶν, aire περιπετείαι καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεις. And men arrive at perfection in diction and manners, sooner than in constructing plots. [The rest of this chapter is a repetition, and is inconsistent with Aristotle’s own ideas in other places. See Ritter. ] Vil.—2. From the previous definition, κεῖται ἡμῖν τὴν τραγῳδίαν τελείας καὶ ὅλης πράξεως εἶναι μίμησιν ἐχούσης τι μέγεθος" for there may be ὅλον μηδὲν ἔχον μέγεθος. And ὅλον 15 τὸ ἔχον ἀρχὴν καὶ μέσον καὶ τελευτήν, 8. but ἀρχὴ, ὃ αὐτὸ μὲν ἐξ: ἀνάγκης μὴ μετ᾽ ἄλλο ἐστί" μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο δ᾽ ἕ ἕτερον πέφυκεν εἶναι ἢ “γίνεσθαι, and τελευτὴ, τοὐναντίον, ὃ αὐτὸ μετ᾽ ἄλλο πέ-τ φυκεν εἶναι, i ἐξ ἀνάγκης, ἢ ὡς ἐπιτοπολύ" μετὰ δὲ Τοῦτο ἄλλο οὐδέν, and μέσον, καὶ αὐτὸ μετ᾽ ἄλλο, καὶ per’ ἐκεῖνο ἕτερον. To these definitions the poet must conform.
4. Again, whatever is beautiful, must not only have a proper arrangement of its parts, but must be of a proper magni-. tude, neither too large for its parts to be comprehended, nor too small.
- 7. The proper μέγεθος of tragedy i is ἐν ὅσῳ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, a τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἐφεξῆς γιγνομένων, συμβαίνει εἰς εὐτυχίαν ἐκ δυστυχίας, ἢ ἢ ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν μεταβάλλειν.
VIII.—1. Μῦθος is one, not ἐὰν περὶ ἕνα ἦ, as the authors of Heracleids, etc. have wrongly supposed, but because it is the imitation of one entire action, complete in all its parts.
IX.—1. Moreover it is not the poet’s province to relate ra γινόμενα, but οἷα ἂν γένοιτο, καὶ τὰ δυνατὰ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, ἣ τὸ, ἀναγκαῖον. For this is the proper difference between the historian and poet, not the use of metre.
3. And poetry is more philosophical than history, because it regards τὰ καθόλου, but history τὰ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον.
. 4, Ἔστι δὲ καθόλου μὲν, τῷ ποίῳ τὰ ποῖ ἅττα συμβαίνει λέ-γειν, ij πράττειν κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, ἣ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον. οὗ στοχάζεται ἡ ποίησις ὀνόματα ἐπιτιθεμένη" τὰ δὲ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον, τ΄ Αλκιβιάξδης ἔπραξεν, ἣ τί ἔπαθεν.
5. Hence comic writers use names of their own invention, but tragedians τῶν γενομένων ὀνομάτων ἀντέχονται, at least one or two in each play.
8. But it is not necessary that a poet should confine himself to τοὺς παραδεδομένους μύθους, but he should be ποιητὴς μᾶλλον τῶν μύθων, ἣ τῶν μέτρων, inasmuch as he is ποιητὴς κατὰ τὴν μίμησιν" 9. μιμεῖται δὲ τὰς πράξεις; even if he write τὰ γενόμενα, he is no less a poet.
10. Of simple plots or actions the episodic are the worst. And ἐπεισοδιώδης μῦθος is that, ἐν ᾧ τὰ ἐπεισόδια per’ ἄλληλα οὔτ᾽ εἰκὸς, οὔτ᾽ ἀνάγκη εἶναι, and such are made by bad poets, δι’ αὐτοὺς, but by good ones, διὰ τοὺς ὑποκριτάς.
12. And since οὗ μόνον τελείας ἐστὶ πράξεως ἡ μίμησις, ἀλλὰ καὶ φοβερῶν καὶ ἐλεεινῶν, that which is wonderful must also have some appearance of cause, rather than of being ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου καὶ τῆς τύχης, for even casual events are most wonderful when they seem to be from design.
X.—1. Plots, like actions, are either ἁπλοὶ or πεπλεγμένοι.
2. ἁπλῆ πρᾶξις, ἧς γενομένης, ὥσπερ ὥρισται, συνεχοῦς καὶ μιᾶς, ἄνευ περιπετείας ἣ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ ἡ μετάβασις γίνεται" but πεπλεγμένη, ἐξ ἧς μετὰ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ, ἣ περιπετείας, ἢ ἀμφοῖν, ἡ μετάβασίς ἐστι.
3. And these should be the necessary consequences of what has gone before, διαφέρει yap πολὺ γίνεσθαι τάδε διὰ τάδε, ἢ μετὰ τάδε.
XIL—1. Ἔστι δὲ περιπέτεια μὲν ἡ εἰς τὸ ἐναντίον τῶν πραττο-μένων μεταβολὴ, κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, 7) ἀναγκαῖον.
2. ᾿Αναγνώρισις δ᾽ ἐστὶν, ὥσπερ καὶ τοὔνομα σημαίνει, ἐξ ἀγvoiac εἰς γνῶσιν μεταβολὴ, ἣ εἰς φιλίαν, 7) ἔχθραν τῶν πρὸς εὐτυχίαν 7} δυστυχίαν ὡρισμένων. καλλίστη δὲ ἀναγνώρισις, ὅταν ἅμα περιπέτειαι γίνωνται.
3. There are also others, but the above is best, as producing ἔλεον ἣ φόβον.
5. And since discoveries are relative, they are sometimes of one, sometimes of both the persons.
XII. [ Of doubtful authority. The following, however, are the definitions of the parts of quantity. 1. πρόλογος, μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ πρὸ χοροῦ παρόδου. 2. ἐπεισόδιον, μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας, τὸ μεταξὺ ὅλων χορικῶν μελῶν. 8. ἔξοδος, μέρος ~~ ἕλον τραγῳδίας, μεθ᾽ ὃ οὐκ ἔστι χοροῦ μέλος. 4. But of the chorus, πάροδος, ἣ πρώτη λέξις ὅλου χοροῦ. And στάσιμον, μέλος χοροῦ, τὸ ἄνευ ἀναπαίστου καὶ τροχαίου. 5. κόμμος, θρῆ-νος κοινὸς χοροῦ καὶ ἀπὸ σκηνῆς.
XIII.—2. The poet should aim at a plot that is πεπλεγμένη, and φοβερῶν καὶ ἐλεεινῶν μιμητική. He should not represent τοὺς ἐπιεικεῖς Changing from happiness to misery, οὐ yap φοβεpoy, οὐδὲ ἐλεεινὸν τοῦτο, ἀλλὰ μιαρόν ἐστιν, nor yet the con- -trary, for the fall of the wicked does not excite pity or fear, = but only τὸ φιλάνθρωπον.
3. The best subject for tragedy is ὁ μήτε ἀρετῇ διαφέρων, καὶ δικαιοσύνῃ, μήτε διὰ κακίαν καὶ μοχθηρίαν μεταβάλλων εἰς τὴν δυστυχίαν, ἀλλὰ δι ἁμαρτίαν τινὰ τῶν ἐν μεγάλῃ δόξῃ ὄντων καὶ εὐτυχίᾳ.
4. Hence ἀνάγκη ἄρα τὸν καλῶς ἔχοντα μῦθον ἁπλοῦν εἶναι μᾶλλον ἢ διπλοῦν, ὥσπερ τινές φασι, καὶ μεταβάλλειν οὐκ εἰς εὐτυχίαν ἐκ δυστυχίας, ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυ-χίαν, μὴ διὰ μοχθηρίαν, ἀλλὰ Ov ἁμαρτίαν μεγάλην, ἢ οἵου εἴρη-ται, ἢ βελτίονος μᾶλλον ἣ χείρονος. 5. Thus the plots are confined to the adventures of a few families.
6. Euripides, from his plots ending unhappily, is unduly blamed.
7. But a happy end ‘pleases the weak feelings of the spectators, as also does the διπλῇ σύστασις, where the play ends in a contrary result to the good and bad.
8. But this is better suited to comedy.
XIV.—1. Scenic decoration may excite terror and pity, but they should rather arise ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγμάτων, Which is far better, and more suitable to the poet’s art.
2. And ὄψις rather produces τὸ τερατῷδες.
4. Now, terrible actions must be either between friends, enemies, or persons indifferent. But if an enemy kill an enemy, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν, as also with indifferent persons. But it is between friends and relations that such events become piteous. j 5. Now, we must not essentially alter the received subjects of tragedy, but we must invent new ones, and use the old judiciously.
6. Now, this may be done in the following ways: 1. εἰδύτας καὶ γιγνώσκοντας, as Medea. 2. ἀγνοοῦντας τὸ δεινὸν, εἶθ᾽ ὕστερον ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν “φιλίαν, as Cidipus. 3. τὸν μέλ-λοντα ποιεῖν τι τῶν ἀνηκέστων δ ἀγνοίαν, ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν ποιῆσαι.
7. The worst way is γινώσκοντα “μελλῆσαι, καὶ μὴ πρᾶξαι, for it is ἀπαθὲς. Βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι. τὸ, τε γὰρ μιαρὸν οὗ πρόσεστι, καὶ ἡ ἀναγνώ-ρισις ἐκπληκτικόν. κράτιστον δὲ τὸ τελευταῖον, AS in the Iphigenia in Tauris.
11. Hence tragedy is confined to a few familios,.& ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.
XV. Four requisites of τὰ ἤθη. 1. ὅπως ane ἦ. ἕξει ee ἦθος μὲν, ἐὰν, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη, ποιῇ φανερὰν ὁ λόγος, ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαίρεσίν τινα" φαῦλον μὲν, ἐὰν φαύλην᾽ χρηστὸν δὲ, ἐὰν χρηστήν. ἔστι δὲ ἐν ἑκάστῳ YéI% 2. τὰ ἁρμόττοντα.
3. τὸ ὅμοιον.
4, τὸ ὁμαλόν.
6. Furthermore, χρὴ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν, ὥσπερ! καὶ ἐν τῇ τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσει, ἀεὶ ζητεῖν, ij τὸ ἀναγκαῖον, ij τὸ εἰκός. 7. And hence the development of a plot should arise out of the plot itself, not out of the machinery, which should be confined to ra ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, things happening before or after the time of action. And ἄλογον μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν," but if so, ἔξω τῆς τραγωδίας.
8. Like good painters, we must improve upon the original we imitate.
XVI. [ Doubtful. The four kinds of discovery are, 1. ἡ διὰ τῶν σημείων, and these are either σύμφυτα, or ἐπίκτητα, which are the worst. 2. ai πεποιημέναι ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητοῦ, also οὐκ ἄτεχνοι. 8. διὰ μνήμης. 4. ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ.
8. But the best is ἡ ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν πραγμάτων, τῆς ἐκπλήξεως γιγνομένης δ εἰκότων. Next to it, ἡ ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ. ] XVII.—1. The poet should put himself as much as possible in the place of a spectator.
2. And of an actor likewise, for he will best express agitation who feels it, δι ὃ ἐυφυοῦς ἡ ποιητική ἐστιν ἢ μανικοῦ.
3. He should ‘first draw out a general sketch of the subject, then add the episodes, taking care that they belong properly to the subject. They are short in tragedy, but serve te lengthen out an epic poem.
XVIII. [Doubtful. Every tragedy consists of two parts: 1. &€orc, ἣ ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς μέχρι τούτου τοῦ μέρους ὃ Ecxardr ἐστιν, ἐξ οὗ μεταβαίνει εἰς εὐτυχίαν.
2. λύσις, ἡ ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς τῆς μεταβάσεως μέχρι τέλους.
Four kinds of tragedy: 1. πεπλεγμένη, ἧς τὸ ὅλον ἐστὶ περι-πέτεια καὶ ἀναγνώρισις. 2. παθητική" οἷον, οἵ τε Αἴαντες, καὶ. οἱ Ἰξίονες. 8. ἠθική" οἷον, ai Φθιώτιδες και ὁ Πηλεύς. 4. οἷον, αἵ τε Φόρκιδες καὶ Προμηθεὺς, καὶ ὅσα ἐν ἅδῃ, with all which the poet should be more or less acquainted, for the public now expect excellence in all the different kinds.
3. Tragedies are the same or different, not according to the subject, but the δέσις and λύσις. Many poets complicate well, but develope badly. | 4, We must be careful μὴ ποιεῖν ἐποποιΐκον (i. 6. πολύpvdov) σύστημα τραγφδίαν.
7. Moreover, the chorus must be considered as one of the persons of the drama, and be a part of the whole, not arbitrarily introduced.
XIX. The διανοία has been treated of in the Rhetoric, and includes τό, re ἀποδεικνύναι, καὶ τὸ λύειν, Kal τὸ πάθη παρασκευ-ἀζειν" οἷον, ἔλεον, ἢ φόβον, ἢ ὀργὴν, καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, καὶ ἔτι͵ μέγεθος, καὶ σμικρότητα. The poet must therefore draw from the same sources as the orator, except that in the drama things must appear to be such ἄνευ διδασκαλίας, τὰ δὲ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ ὑπὸ τοῦ λέγοντος παρασκευάζεσθαι, καὶ παρὰ τὸν λόγον γίγνεσθαι. ͵ 4, The figures of speech concern the actor, rather than the poet, οἷον τί ἐντολὴ, καὶ τί εὐχὴ, καὶ διήγησις, καὶ ἀπειλὴ, καὶ ἐρώτησις, καὶ ἀπόκρισις, καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον. ᾿ XX. [This chapter is an useless scholium. The proper divisions and definitions will be found in the Rhetoric.
XXI.—1. A word is either ἁπλοῦν, ὁ μὴ ἐκ σημαινόντων σύγκειται, OY διπλοῦν, either ἐκ σημαίνοντος καὶ ἀσήμου, OY ἐκ σημαινόντων. ‘The following are the different kinds.
; Se “ Sometimes the same word, 2. 1. κύριον, ᾧ χρῶνται ἕκαστοι.
8. IL γλῶτταν, ᾧ ἕτεροι. in reference to different people, may be both.
4. Il. μεταφορὰ, ὀνόματος ἀλλοτρίου ἐπιφορὰ, ἢ ἀπὸ γένους ἐπὶ εἶδος, ἢ ἀπὸ εἴδους ἐπὶ γένος" ἢἣ ἀπὸ εἴδους ἐπὶ εἶδος, ἢ κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον.
9. Iv. πεποιημένον, ὃ ὅλως μὴ καλούμενον ὑπό τινων, αὐτὸς τέθεται ὁ ποιητῆς.
10. ν. ἐπεκτεταμένον, ἐὰν φωνήεντι μακοοτέρῳ κεχρημένον, ἢ τῷ οἰκείῳ, ἢ συλλαβῇ ἐμβεβλημένῃ.
V1. ἀφῃρημένον, ἂν ἀφῃρημένον ἦ τι, ἣ αὐτοῦ, ἣ ἐμβεβλημένου.
vu. ἐξηλλαγμένον, ὅταν τοῦ ὀνομαζομένου, τὸ μὲν καταλείπῃ, τὸ δὲ ποιῇ.
[The remainder is both spurious and incorrect. ] XXII.—1. The virtues of λέξις are, > σαφῆ εἶναι κὰι μὴ ταπεινήν. ἐκ τῶν κυρίων ὀνομάτων. and such will be ἡ τοῖς ἕενικοὶς χρωμένη, 1. 6. γλώτταις, μεταφο- ραῖς, καὶ πᾶσ. τοῖς παρὰ τὸ κύριον. But too great a use of such words will produce an enigma or barbarism, for the very notion of an enigma is τὸ λέγοντα ὑπάρχοντα ἀδύνατα συνάψαι.
4. Both effects are produced by a judicious use of αἱ ἐπεκ-'ἄσεις καὶ ἀποκοπαὶ, καὶ ἐξαλλαγαὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων.
9. But a judicious use of metaphors is the greatest excellence of all, for it cannot be derived from another, and is a sign τῆς εὐφυΐας, τὸ γὰρ εὖ μεταφερειν, TO ὅμοιον θεωρεῖν ἐστι.
10. τὰ διπλᾶ are best suited to dithyrambs.
γλῶτται, to heroic verse. μεταφοραὶ, to Iambic.
But heroie verse admits of all these kinds. JIambic should approach as much as possible to the diction of common life.
XXIII. In narrative and hexameter verse, the story ought to be dramatically constructed, as in tragedy, i. e. it should be περὶ μίαν πρᾶξιν ὅλην καὶ τελείαν, ἔχουσαν ἀρχὴν καὶ μέσον καὶ τέλος, ἵν᾽, ὥσπερ ζῶον ἕν ὅλον, ποιῇ τὴν οἰκείαν ἡδονὴν, differing from history, which treats of events of one time, not of one action.
8. Hence the excellent management of Homer in not attempting to bring the whole war into his poem, but only taking one part, filling it out with episodes.
XXIV. The epic poem snould also agree with the tragic as to its kinds [simple or complicated, moral or disastrous 9. Its parts are also the same, except μελοποιΐία and ὄψις, for it must have περιπετείαι, ἀναγνωρίσεις, παθήματα, διανοίαι, and λέξις, suitably arranged, as in Homer, ἡ μὲν Ιλιὰς, ἁπλοῦν καὶ “αθητικόν" ἡ δὲ Οδύσσεια, πεπλεγμένον. ἀναγνώρισις γὰρ διόλου καὶ ἠθική. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις λέξει καὶ διανοίᾳ πάντας ὑπερ(βθεβληκε.
8. It also differs in length.
4. For it has the advantage of being extended by narrative of many simultaneous actions, which increase the ὄγκος rot «οιήματος, and also by different episodes.
5. Heroic is the established metre of narrative poetry, for it iS στασιμώτατον καὶ ὀγκωδέστατον, but the lambic and 'Trochaic κινητικὰ, TO μὲν, ὀρχηστικόν, TO δὲ, πρακτικόν.
6. A mixture of these metres is absurd.
7. Like Homer, the poet should know when it is fitting for him to speak in person.
8. The θαυμαστὸν is necessary in tragedy, but in epopee even τὸ ἄλογον is admitted, which is most wonderful, διὰ τα μὴ ὁρᾷν εἰς τὸν πράττοντα.
9. And Homer has chiefly taught other poets ψευδῆ λέγειν ὡς δεῖ, which is by a παραλογισμός on the part of the hearer.
10. And the poet should prefer ἀδύνατα καὶ εἰκότα, μᾶλλον ἢ δυνατὰ καὶ ἀπίθανα" τοὺς Te λόγους μὴ συνίστασθαι ἐκ μερῶν ἀλόγων, ἀλλὰ μάλιστα μὲν μηδὲν ἔχειν ἄλογον" εἰ δὲ μὴ, ἔξω τοῦ μυθεύματος, as Cidipus’ ignorance as to the manner of Laius’ death.
11. And the diction should be most studied in the idle parts of the poem, where there are neither manners nor sentiment. For these latter are obscured by over-fine diction.
XXV. and XXVI. [ Very doubifut. As these two chap ters are quite unintelligible, except in reference to the examples quoted, it is of little use to analyse them. | THE END, Ἂν» ay Se cot ae ’ ἵν _ a INDEX To ARISTOTLE’S TREATISES ΟΝ RHETORIC AND THE POETIC.
Abundant, the, better than the rare, Accent, objections to, removed, 467.
Accident, an element of the apparent enthymem, 195.
Accomplices in guilt, to be feared, Accusation and defence, various reasonings in, 67.
Achilles, anger of, 107.
Action, habitual, attended with pleasure, 76.
Actions, tragedy an imitation of, Actors, complaints respecting, 471.
Admiration, attended with pleasure, Adulation, meaning of, explained, Adultery, legal definition of, 88, 89. Enesidemus, specious liberality of, Zésop, fables of, 166, 167.
Agatho, remark of, 163; lines from, Aged, see Old Age. Ages, definition of, 150. Αἴτιον, definition of, 47, n. bry the subject matter of logic, n. ἀλαζὼν, application of the word, Appetite, impulse of the, 71; Alceus, saying of, 60.
*Alcmeon’”? of Astydamas, the tragedy of, 434 et ἢ.
Alliteration, instances of, 233.
Ambiguity, an element of apparent enthymems, 192 Ambitious, the, likely to feel indignation, 144; disposed to envy, Amplification, necessity for, 65, 66.
—— and extenuation, observations Amusements, attended with plea sure, 70.
Analogy, an element of the enthy- Androcles, the orator, 188.
Anger, feelings of, 3, 71; definition of, 105; persons against whom and by whom it is felt, ib. ex seg.; three species of, 106; how allayed, 114.
—— and hatred, six points of comparison between, 120.
Anomalies, an element of the enthymem, 190.
Antimachus, precept of, 223.
Antithesis, of style, 232; the false the desire of what is pleasant, 73; irrational and rational, ἐδ, "Apxn, definition of, 47.
Areopagus, practice of the, 3.
Argos, pecuiiar law at, 93.
Arguing from cause to effect, an element of the enthymem, 190.
Arguments, on the solution of, 197 et seq.
Aristocracy, form of government, ' Articles, one of the parts of diction, Arts, illustration from the, 4, n.
Auditors, feelings of the, 12; held to be ἀπλοὶ, 15; three kinds of, 21; how to appease the, 115.
B.
Bacchic hymns, all the means of imitation employed together by, Badges, honourable, 61.
Beauty, different according # difference of age, 36; of objects and words, 213; of style, 234; magnitude the constituent of, 421.
Benefactors, friendliness felt for, Benevolence, object of, 134.
Birth, high, qualities of, 34; characteristic disposition of, 156.
Body, excellencies of the, 36.
Brave, the, friendliness felt for, 117.
C. Calippus the orator, 188. Callistratus, his charge against Melenopus, 92. Cases, one of the parts of diction, Censure, attended with pleasure, 78.
Chance, definition of, 38; mankind | impelled by, 70; on the circumstances of, 426.
Character, goodness of, 35; a specific good, 41; attended with pleasure, 75; men of, are sometimes impelled to commit injustice, 82; comparison of, to be made, 66; what constitutes, 418.
Χάρις, definition of, 133.
Χειμαινει, meaning of, 44], n.
. Chorus, a part of tragedy, 429+ ita various divisions, ἐδ.; business of the, 445; gradual extinction of the, ἐδ., ἢ.
Cicero, caution of, 16, π.
Cithern-playing, a favourite accomplishment of the Athenian youth, Comedy, an imitative art, 407; origin of, 413, 415 et seg.
Comeliness, different according:ὸ difference of age, 36.
Commendation, language of, 6.1, 65 Commos, a part of the chorus, 429 Community, injustice to the, defined, 87.
Compacts, definition of, 98.
Compulsion, the motive of human action, 70.
Confidence, definition of, 125; how eee ἐδ.; persons who feel, Conjunctions, one of the parts of diction, 449.
Conon, expression of, 191.
Consequents, an element of the en- Constraint, freedom from, pleasant, Contempt, a feeling contrary to emulation, 149.
Contraries, an element of the enthymem, 178; consideration of, Contumely, definition of, 107.
Courage, quality of, 50; a constituent of virtue, 58.
Cowardice, illustration of, 128.
Crimes, on the various degrees of, 92 et seg.
Critics, objections of, answered, 463 et seq.
Custom, mankind impelled by, 71.
D. Dancing, an imitative art 408 Danger, an object of fear, 122 Decisions, legal, an element of the enthymem, 184.
Declamation, often ridiculous when read, 247.
Decoraticn, a certain part of tragedy, 417 et n.
Deeds, one of the proofs necessary in judicial oratory, 98; arguments to be used for and against, Definition, an element of the enthymem, 182.
Definitions of Aristotle’s Rhetoric, yoo οι of his Poetic, 478— Delicacy of feeling, disquisition on, 127 et seq.
Democracy, form of government, 55.
Depravity, the cause of injustice, 68.
Διαβολὴ, use of the word, 3, n.
Διαλεκτικὴ, explanation of, 23, n.
Διαλεκτικὸς, explained, 10, n.
Dialectics, rhetoric an offshoot of, Avavoia, a certain part of tragedy, Diction, an element of apparent enthymems, 192; definition of, 420; en the use of, in tragedy, 446; on the various parts of, 447 δὲ seq.; requisites of, 454 et seg.; should sometimes be laboured, 463; many modifications of, 464; critical objections to, removed, 466; custom of, 468.
Dilemma, an element of the enthy- Διοννσοκόλακας, origin of the term, Discovery, explanation of, in fable, 427; feelings excited by the, 428; on the different kinds of, 438 et seq.
er crea minute, to be avoided, Disgraced, the, motives of, for committing injustice, 83.
Dissembling, the, to be feared, 123.
Dithyrambic poetry, an imitative art, 407; all the means of imitation employed together by, 409, n.
Dorieus, conqueror at the Olympic games, 17.
Draco, the laws of, 191.
Drama, etymology of the, 411; on its various parts, 420; on exhibitions in the, 421.
E.
Eidn, use of the term, 22, 23.
Εἰκὸς, definition of, 17 et seg.; enthymems deduced from, 17; solution of, sometimes fallacious, Empedocles, saying of, 87.
Emulation, definition of, 1473; nature, objects, and feelings of, 147 et seq.
Encomium, language of, 64.
Enemies, motives of, for committing injustice, 83, 84; objects of fear, Enthymems, the very body of proof, 3, 7; consequence of disregarding, 5, n.; a sort of syllogism, 7, 14; deduced from εἰκότα and σημεῖα, 17 et seg.; two different sorts of, 22, 177; suited to judicial oratory, 66; on the nature and use of, 168, 174 et seg.; various elements of, 178 et seg.; how to be used in legal proof, , fallacious, the various elements of, 192 e¢ seq.
Enumeration of parts. an element of the enthymem, 185.
Envy, opposéd to pity, 141; definition of, 141, 145; on the nature, objects, and feelings of, 145 e¢ seq.
νι αῤμὶ definition of, 64.
Epic Poetry, similarity of tragedy to, 416; observations on, 458; different species and parts of, 459 et seqg.; merit of imitation in, as compared with tragedy, 470 δέ seq.
᾿Επιχαιρεκακία, explanation of, Epideictic oratory, the subjects of, 57; the common point of, 64; amplification suitable to, 66; general nature of, 175.
style suited to writing, 248.
᾿Επιποιία, difficulty of defining, Episode, a part of tragedy, 429; must be suitable to the plot, 442; Homer’s use of, 458.
Epithets, on the use of, 213, 215.
Epopee, an imitative art, 407, 408; various parts of the, 459; its power of extension, and its proper metre, 460; necessity for the wonderful in, 461.
Equals, likely to be envied, 146.
Equipoise of style, 233.
Equity, in law, explanation of, 89 et seq.
Equivocation, an element of the enthymem, 191.
Errors, previously committed, an element of the enthymem, 190.
Ἤθη explained, 149, n.
Eubulus, adopts a saying of Plato,97.
Euphony, necessity of, 212.
Euripides, his reply to the Syracusans, 131.
πὐτράπελοι, remarks on, 152, ἢ.
Exaggeration, an element of the apparent enthymems, 194.
Examples, suited to deliberative oratory, 66; different kinds of, and their use, 165 et seg.; reasonings derived from, 199; solution of, 200; best suited to proofs, 263.
Excellencies, personal, attended with pleasure, 78.
Excess of good or evil, 46 et seg.
Exhorting, objects of, in oratory, 33.
Exode, a part of tragedy, 429.
Exordium, occurrence of the, 250; on the nature and use of the, 251 et seq.
Expedient, the object of, proposed, 39; what is the higher degree of, Exports, necessary to be understood by the orator, 81.
Extenuation, ebservations on, 201. | INDEX: F.
Fable, or Apologue, use of, by way of example, 166; suited to the deliberative orator, 167.