although it involves the (oiisent of the two sides and also a double ])eilomiaiice The piihlu servant is not called to a single chance act of scnice, as is the attorney, but finds 111 ills W'oik the iiiaiii inteiest of both his spiritual and his jiaiticulai cMsteiKc So also it is not a matter merely estcinal and pailnulai, the poifoiniaiice of which is iiitiiisted to him The laliu* of siuh <i matter on its inner side IS ditteicut tioui the evteinabtv of it, and thus isnot as yet iiinned, as a stijiulation is (§ 77), merely by nonjieitoitiiaucc Tliat which the public seivant lias to perloi in IS as it stands of alisoluto value Hence positive injury oi iion-jieiloiiuauce, eithei being opposed to the essence of service is a wioiig to the iinivoiSiil content (§ 95, a negativo-iiihiiite ju(lynient), and tlieicfoie a fault or crime The assuied satisfaction of particular want does away with external need There is no occasion to seek the means for alleviating want at the cost of official activity and duty In the universal function of state those who are commissioned with the affairs of state are protected also against the other subjective side, the private passion of subjects, whose private interests, etc, may be injured by the furtherance of the universal 295 Seciiiity for the state and its subjects against misuse of power by the authorities and their officers is found IIIL I’HILOSfU'lIY Ol KK.ill diietth lu then lesponsiihility aiiaiu" out of then Uiituie.l^ a hieiaich} But it la.iKofounrl lu the Icifitimiite aodotio ami coipiuatioua The v hold m < hetk the inflou of aulilectiie MilfulueaS) mto the pouei ot the ofliiera The} aho supplenieut fiom below the coiitio] tunn aboie who h camiut leaih down to the coudm t oi mdividuah Xofe — la the touduLt and ihaiaitei of the ofhieia the laws and deLiaiona ot ooveiuiueul toiii h iiiilividuahtt, anil aie given reality On thia deywiid the satialai tiou and confidence of the citizens in the goieiiiineiit On this aho depeiida the e\e(utiou ot the ccoieiuinciit a mtiiitioiis oi else the weakemiic; and fiiistiation ot them sinie the niannci in ivliuli the intention is lealized is In seiiMluhn and sentinient easily estimated inoie hiohU tluiu the ait itself even though it be a tax It is due to this dnei t and pel sonal contact that the coutiol iioin above mat lucoinjiletely attain its cud This end iiia} find an olistaile in the common mteiest of the ofhcial clas^ uhnh is distinif fiom both suliieits and supeiiois Espeiialli uheii institutions aie peihaps not yetpeiieited thelnglui inteileieuie of soveien^ni} ioi the lennnal ol these hnnliainos (as foi exaiui'le that ot Fiiedinhll in the laiiioiis Mnlh i-Aiiiold affaii; is dunianded and ]ustifae(l 296 IV'lietliei oi uoiiitegiiti ot loiidiict, eeutleiiess, and fieeduin fiom passion pass into social custom dejieiids upon the nature of ihe diicct ethiiiil hie and tliought These phases of chaiactci inaiutam the spnitnal halame mei against the ineieh iiieutal acipiisitioii oi the so-called seieuces, dealing with the objects of these spheres of government, against also the necessarv piactice of business, and the actual labour of mecbanieal and other tiadus The greatness of the stale is also a contiollmg element, hi viitue of winch the importance of family relations and othei jiiivate ties IS diminished, and revenge, hate, and the hlce jiassious become mopeiativo and poweiless In comern foi the gieat interests of a large state, these subjective elements THE SI ATE smk out of sight, Audtheic is piodncod ah habitual regard for uuiveisal mteiests aud afiaiis 297 The muinbei s ot the execiitno and the state officials constitute the iiiain pait of the middle class, in uhicli arc found the educated mtelligeucc and the consciousness of light of the mass of a jicojile The institutions of soveieignty operating fioni above aud the lights of corporations f 10111 beloiv pieient this class liom occupying the position of ail exclusive aiislwiaci and usmg then education aud skill Mil lull}' and despoticalK Note — At one time tlie adiuiuistiation of justice, mIiosc object IS the peculiai iiiteiest ot all individuals, had been conveited into an instiument ot g.iin aud desjDotism The Imon ledge of laiv iias con< exiled iindei a pedantic oi foieign speech, and the knowledge oi legal jnoceduie imdei an involved toiiiialisni Addition — The state’s consciousness and the most conspicuous education aic found in the middle class, to ■ndiicli the state otlaials belong The nieinbeis of this class, theiefoie, foini the jiilkus of the state in legard to lectitude and mtelhgonce The state, il i1 has no middle class, IS still at a loiv stage oi del elopiueiit In Russia, foi example, theie is a multitude ot seifs aud a host of rulers It IS of gieat coucciu to the state that a middle class should be foiiiied, but tins cau be ettected only in an oigamzation such as we have dcsciibed, nameh, bv the legalization of paiticulai tildes, ulucli aie lelatneh independent, and bj a foicc ot officials, ii Iiose wiliuluess has no power ovei these legalized ciicles Action in accoi dance with universal light, and the habit of such action, aic consequences of the opposition produced h\ these self-reliant independent circles C Tlie Legislatvi e 298 Tlie legislatnie inteijuets the laws and also those intcinal affaiis oi the state ivliose content is universal This function is itself a part of the constitution In it the X I in: PiiiLOSopiiv of rigiii.
constitution i'. piesniiposetl, and so fai lies absolntelv beyond diiect delimitation Yet it leceires develojmient in tbe iinpi oveineut of the law-, and the ](iO"ressive thaiaitei of the nnnt'i'sal afttui^. of iroveimnent Adchiioii — The Lonstitiilioii must uiiqiiestiouabh be the solid uroiind, on whiLh the leiiislatino stands Hian e the piime essential is not to set to ivork to make a coiwlitiition It e\ists blit let it ladicalh beionies, that is, it is toimed ])iO£;ressivelv Tins pioqiess is an alteiatioii iihnh is not noticed, and has not the loiin of an <illeiation Poi example, the wealth of jiiiiiees ami tlieii laniilies iias at first a pi ivatc jiossessiou in Gei inaiiv, tlieii, ii it hoiit aiii stiii£?"le 01 ojiiiosition it was com ei tod into domains, that IS, state wealth This came about thioinrh tbe jninces feclinq the need of an nndnided possession and demanding fiom the fonntiv, and the landed classes cfcneialh, secinitv foi the same Theic was in this way deielojied a kind of possession, over i\ Inch the piinces had no lomrei the sole disposition In a smiilai •nai,1he cnipeioi was toinieily liid<?o and tiai died about in Ins kniydom crninn tlie law Tliiouiih the meidv sccmnit; oi oxteinal tnoctioss ot civilization. it has bciome neccssaiv that the einjieioi should moie and iiioie dolecrate tins ofiice of pidqe to otheis Thus the ludicial function passed liom the pel son of the i>iince to colleaqnes So the piOLjiess of anv condition of llmnjsis a seemnii’ly calm and niinoticecl one In the lapse of time a constitution attains a jiositioii cpnte otliei than it had befoie 299 These objects are defined in lefeienceto individuals nioio pieciselv in two wavs, (a) what of good comes to individuals to enjoy at the haii'is of the state, and (ft) what they must perfoi m for the slate The first division embiaees the laws of private light in general, also the rights of societies and corpoiatioiis To these must lie added iiniveisal institutions, and iiicbiectlv (§ 298) the uhole ot the ( onstitution But that which, on the othui hand, is to •IIIE STA'IE.
be performed, is i educed to money ds the existing universal value of things and sei vices Hence, it can be determined only 111 so ecpiitable a wav that the paiticulai lasts and sei vices, which the individual (dii peifoim, may be effected by his piivate icill Xofc — The obiect-mattei of nniieisal legislation may be in gcneial distnigmshed fiom that of the administiative and eveeutivc' fumtions in (liis wav Only what is wholly linn ei sal ni its eoiiteiil f,ills iiiidei legislation, while iidimnistiation de.ils with the paiticular and also the special nay of caiiyiiig it out Hut tins distinction is not absolute, since the law, as it is a law, and not a mere gonei al coinraaiid such as “Thou shall not kill” (§ 140, «o/e, ]) 1-12), must be m itself definite, and the more definite it is, tlie inoie neailv its content approaches the possibilitv of being earned out as it is But at the same tune sin li a complete settlement of the laws would give them an ciiipiiKal side, which in actual execution would make tlic-m suli](Ht to.ilteiatiou This would be detimieiital to then chaiailei as laws The organic unitv of the functions of state implies that one single spirit both fixes the iiatuie of the* unn-ois.il and also camesit out to its definite lealitv It niav occur that the state lacs no direct elaim upon the m.inv kinds of skill, possessions talents, faculties, with the manifold iieisonal Health which is contained in them and IS tinged with snlr|ettivo sentiment, but only upon that form of wealth which appears as money — The services referrmg to the defence of the state against enemies belong to the dutv discussed in the next section of this treatise Money is, in fact, not a special kind of wealth, but the umveisal element in all kinds, in so far as they in production are given such an external leality as can be apprehended as an ob-iect Only at this external point of view is it possible and iiist to estimate performances quanfitativdy.
'iiij: PHILOSOPHY of iugiit Plato 111 his “Republic” allows the luleis to appoint indmduals to then jiaiticiilai class, and assign to them then paiticulai tasks (§ 185, note) In feudal-iiioiiaichy vassals had to iieitoiin a siinilaily unlmiitud seivice, and simply 111 then paiticiilaiity to dischaige such a duty as that of a ]udge Sei vices in the East, such as the vast undertakings in aichitectiiie lu Egipt, aie also in qualiti’ particulai In all these relations Ihcie is lacking the IJiinciplc of siibjectne ficedoui In iiecoidauce Tvith this Ijriiiciple, the substantive act oi the mdiMdnal, ■n-lncli even in the above-mentioned seivnces is in its content iiaiticiilai should jjioceed fiom his iiaitieiilai mil This light is possible only Tvlien the demand for ivoik lests njiou the basis of nimeisal value Thiough the influence of this light the substitution of monev foi soivices has been intioduccd A<tditio)i — The two aspects of the constitution lefei to the lights and the sei vices of nidnidiials The seiiices aie now almost all leduccd to nuniev ilihtaiy duty is peiliaps the only leiiiaining pei'Oii.il scivico In ioimei times claim was made to the conciete mdiMclual, who was summoned to woik iii accoiclance with Ins skill Now thestate buys what it needs This may seem alistiact, dead and unfeeling It iiiai also seem as il to be satisfied with abstiact sei vices vcie foi the slate a letiogiade step But the piiiiciplc of the modem state luvolies that eieiything which the individual does should be occasioned In his mil By means of money the pistice inii>hed ni c“quahty tan be much better substantiated The talented would be more heavih taxed than the man without talents if respect were had to concrete capacity But now, out of reverence foi subjective liberty, the principle is biought to light that only that shall be laid hold upon which is of a nature to be laid hold upon 300 In the legislative function in its totality aie active botli the monarchical element and the executive The THK STAl’E.
monarchical gives the final decision, and the executive element advises The executive clement has concrete knowledge and ovei sight of the whole in its many sides and in the actual piinciples firmly rooted in them It has also acquaint.iiu e with the wants of the offices of state. In the legislatiiie aie at last leinesented the different classes oi estates Addition — It pioceods fiom a wioug view of the state to exclude the membeis of the executive from the legislatuie, as was at one time done by the constituent assemhly In England the minidei^* are lightly members ot jiailiaiueiit, smce those who shaie in the executive should stand in connection with and not in opposition to the legislatuie The idea that the functions of government should be independent contains the fundamental eiioi that thoi should check one another But this independence IS ajit to usuip the uuity ot the state, and unity is ahovo all tilings to be desiiod 301 By admitting the classes the legislatuie gives not simply implicit but actual existence to matteis of geueial con com The element ol sub]octno loimal ficedom, the public I oiisciousuess, oi the empiiical univei salitj'' of the vien s and thoughts of the many, heie becomes a icality.
-Vote — The expiessiou “The Manx-” (o! iroWoi) chaiacteri/es the empnical univeisahtv bettei than the woid “ All," nhicli IS 111 cuiient use Undei this “ all,” children, wouieu, etc, aio manifestlv not meant to be included. Manifestly, theiefore, the definite toim “ all” should not be employed, when, it may be, some quite indefinite thmg IS being discussed Theie aie found in cm rent opinion so unspeakably many perveited and false notions and sayings concerning the people, the constitution, and the classes, that it xvould be a vain task to specify, explain, and eoi i eet them When it IS aigued that an.issuiubly of estates is necessary and advantageous, it is meant that the peojile’s deputies, or, IIIK PHILOSOPHY OF HKJHI.
indeed, the people itself, must best uiiclei stand tlieii own mteiest, and that it has undoubtedly the tiuest desiie to secure this luteiest but it is lathei tiuo that the people, in so fai as this teini signifies a siiccial jiait ot the citizens, does not know ivhat it w ills To kuoiv w liiit « e will, and inithei what the absolute will, naiiieb leason, wills, is the iiuit ot d<“eji knowledge and insigdit, and is theiefoie not. the jnoiieity of the people It lequiies but little letleclioii to see that the seiMces perfoimed bv the classes in behalf ot the geuei.il well-being and public libeiti cannot be tiaced to an insight special to these classes The highest state olhiiaK liaie iiecessaiih deepei and nioie coinpiebeusice insight into the woikings and needs of the state, and al-o gieatei skill and widei piactical expeiieiue They aie able without the classes to secure the best lesults. lust as it is tbei who must contiiiualh do this when the (lasses aie in aitnal assembly Geuoial well-being does not theieloie di jieiid iq'oii the paiticular insight of the (lasses, but is lathei the.ichievenient ot the ofhdal deputies Theu (an inspect the woilc of the oflicois who aie taithcst leinoM'd tioiu the obseiiatiou ot the chief lunctiouaiies ot state They, too, haie a concieto peiception ot the inoic uigeiit special needs and defects But to this iiitelhgent tneisighl must be added the possibility of public censuie This possibiliU has the ettcct of c.illmg out the best insight upon public aitaiis and piO]ects, and also the puiest motiies, its mflueiKe is felt b} the lueiiibeis of the classes themselves As ioi the coiisjucuously good will, which is said to be shown by the classes towards the geueial interest, it has already lieen lemaiked (§ 272, note) that the masses, who in geueial adojit a negative standpoint, take for granted that the will of the goveriiineiit is evil oi but little good If this assumption weie replied to in kind, it would lead to the reciimiuation that the classes, since the}' oiiginate in individuaht}, the private standpoint and particular m- THE SIA'IE terests, aio apt to puisue thcbo things at the exjieuse of the univeiaal inteiost, while the otliei elements of the state, being alieady at the point of view of the state, aie devoted to univeisal ends As foi the pledge to lespeot the 2 )ublio nelfaie and lational fieedoni, it should be given espcLially by the ( lasses, but is shaied m by all the othei mstitul Kills of state Tins guaiaiitec is present lu such institutions as the soveieignt}' oi tlie nioiiaich, hereditaiy succession, and the constitution ol the laiv-couits, much moie I'louonncedly than in the classes The classes, theiefoie, aie specially maiked out b\' then containing the sub-]e< tive element of imiieisal libeity In them the peculiar insight and peculiai will of the siiheie, which in this ticatise has been called the ciiic coiuinuuitv, is aetuahved in iclatiou to the state It is heie as elsewheie by means of the philosophic point of view that this element is discerned to bo a inailc of the idea when develojied to a totality This iiiiiei necessity is not lo be confounded with the evteiual necessities and utilities of this phase of state activity Adchtioti — The attitude of the govciumentto the classes must not be in its essence hostile The belief in the necessity of this hostile lelatioii is a sad mistake The govei niiient is not one paitj which stands ovei against anothei, in such a uay that each is seeking to wiest something fioin the other It the state should find itselt in such a situation, it must be legaided as a misfoitune and not as a sign of health Fiuthei, the taxes, to which the classes give then conseut, aie not to be looked upon as a gift to the state, but aie contiibuted toi the interest of the contributors The peculiar significance of the classes or estates is this, tliat thiough them the state enteis mto and begins to shaic in the 8ub-)ective consciousness of the jieople 302 The classes, considcied as a mediatiug oigau, stand between the government and the people at lai'ge in their HIE PHILOSOPHY OF BIGHT several siiheres and individual cajiacities This sjiecific designation of the classes lequnes of them a sense and sentiment both foi the state and goveinment and toi the interests of special ciicles and individuals This position of the classes has, in common vritli the omanized executive, a mediatoiial function It ne thei isolates the jainceh function as an extieine, causing it to apjiear as a mere luling poivei acting capiiciouslv, noi does it isolate the particular iiitoiests of conimmnties, coipoiatious, aud individuals Furthermoie, individuals aie not in it contrasted ivith the organized state, and thus aic not piesented as a mass or lieaji, as unoiganized ojunion aud will, oi as a iiieie collective foice Xote — It IS one ot the fundamental piinciples of logic, that a definite element, which, v\ In n standing in opposition, has the healing of an extieme. ceases to he in ojiposition and becomes an oigaiiic clement, when it is observed to be at the same time a iiic-an In this pie^eut cpiestioii it is all the moie impoitant to nialce piominent this pumiple, since the piepidK o is as common as it is daugeious i\hith pieseuts the classes as essentiallv in C)p2)ositioii to the goveninient Taken uigamcallv, that i-, in its lotnhtv, the element of the classes jaoves its light oiih tliioiigh its office of mediation Thus the opjiosition is leclin ed to meie appeai'ance If it, in so fai as it is manifested weie not I onceined meielc nitli the siipeifacial aspect of things but became a substantive ojiposition, the state iiould be conceit ed of as in decat — That the antagonism is not of this ladical kind is shown by the fact that the obiects, against which it IS directed, are not the essential phases of the politiial organism, hut things that are more special and inchfteient The passion, which attaches itself to this opiiosition, becomes mere party seeking foi some subjective Intel est, perhaps foi one of the higher offices of state AiJdition — The constitution is essentially a sistem of inoduition. In despotic lands wheie there are only princes and people, the j’^ople aot, if they act at all, m such a way as to disturb oi dostioy the pohtical oigauizatiou But when the multitude has an oiganie iclation to the whole, it obtains its interests m a light and oideily way If this middle teini is uot present, the utteiaiice of the masses is always violent Thciofoie, tlie despot tieats the people with iiidnlgenie while his layc attects only those in his immediate ucighbouihood So also the people in a despotism pav light taxes, which iii a constitutional state become laigei Ihiough the people’s own consciousness In no othei land aie taxes so heaxv as they aie in England 303 The univeisal class, the class devoted to the service of the goxeiiiinent, has diiectlx' luits.stiuctme the umveisal as the end ot its (-sseutial actmtv In that bianch of the legislatiie function, xvhuh contains the classes, the jinx ate mdixidual attains political significance and efficiencj Hence, piiiato peisoiis cannot iippeai in the legislatuie eithoi as a iiieic uudistiuguishccl mass, or as an aggiegate of atoms In fact, 1 hex alteadx <-xist undei two distinct aspects They aic found in the class, xvhich is based on the sulistautivo i elation, and also m the class based upon paitic ulai luteiests aiicl th" labom by xvhich they aie SC-caned (§201 and iol ) Onlx in this xvay is the actual paiticulai lu the slate setuieh all.nlied to the umveisal Kiite — This view makc-s againsl auotliei xvidespiead idea, that since the piixate class i-. m the legislatuie exalted to paiticipatiou ill the uiiix-cisal buMiie-.s. il must ajipear iii the foim ot indixiJuals, be it that representatives aie chosen for this puipose, or that eieiy person shall exercise a voice But even m the family this abstiact atomic view is no longer to bo found, nor in the civic community, m both of xvlncli the individual makes his appearance only as a mombei of a unixeisal As to the state, it is essentiallx' an organization, xvhose members aie independent s^iheres, and m it no jiliaso shall show itself as an unorganized multitude. The many, as individuals, whom we aie prone lUK IMIILOSOPIIY OF lUOlIl.
to call the iieople, aic indeed a collective whole, hut uieieh as a multitude oi fomiless mass, whose movement and action would he elemental, void of leason, violent and teiiible When in lefeience to the constitution ue still heai the people, that is, this unoigiinv/cd iii.iss spoken ot. we may take it ioi jji anted thatiie shall he t'lien onlv fjenerahties and uaijied declamations The iieiv leading to the disiiiteni.Llion ot the comuiou existence touml in tlie vaiions < lules, ulm h aie elements in the pohtical uoild oi highest loimele nmveisalili, would seek to divide the civic fioiu the politnal hie The basis of the state would then he onl\ tlie ahstiact indiMdiiahty of wilfubiess and ojimiou, a ioundation iiliidi is meieh accidental, and uot absolutely.steadt.ist and aulhoiitalne That would he like huiklmgjiolitical hie lullie an Althoui'li m these so-called tlieoiies the cl.isses ot the (i\ic community geueiallv and the classes in then political surnificance he fai apait, \et speech has ictamed (hen iiuitj a union which indeed existed long ago 304 The distinction ot classes, winch is ahe-ade pieseiit in the eaiher spheies, is contained also uitliiii the stiict cucuinfeience of the political classes geiieially Their ahstiact position is the extieme oi eiiipiiic al uiusei&ahty in ojiposition to thepiimelv cn mouaicliical piniuiple In this ahstiact position theio is only the possibility ot agi cement, and hence cpiite as much the 2 ->oi>siliihty of aiitagomsm It becomes.i leasonahle lelation, and leads to the conclusion ot the syllogism 302, tiole), only it its middle term, or element of mediation, becomes a leahty Just as fiom the side of the princely function the executive (§ 300) has alieady this chaiactei of reconciliation, so also fiom the side of the classes should one ot then elements be converted into a mediating teim 306 Oi the classes of the civic community one contains the pi me nile, which is really callable ot hllmg this pohtical position This IS the class, whose ethical choractci is THE STA'IE natuial As its basis it has tamily life, and as regaids subsistence it has the possession ot the soil As regaids its jiaiticulaiity it has a will, which lests upon itseH, and, in common nith the jn nicely function, it beais the mark of natuie 306 111 its I'olitical 2'osi1ion and significance this class becomes mole ileaih defined, nhen its means aie made as indeiiendcnt ot the ■nealtli ol the state as they are ot the unceitaiiity of tiade, the desiiefoi gam, and the fluctuations of jiiopeity It IS secuie fioiii the tavoui at once of the executne and (>t tlie multitude It isfiirthei secuied even from its own cainice, since the inombeis of this class, i\lio are called to this ofiice, do without the lights exeicised by the othei citizeus Thee do not tieely dispose of then projieity, iioi do they dnide it eipially among their childieu, ■whom they loie ec^uall) This wealth becomes an inalienable iiiheiitauce buidened bv ^nimogenituie Adchtioii — This cltiss has a moie ludepeudeut volition The class ot jHopeit} owiieis is dnided into two bioad jiaits, the educated and the jteasaiits Incontiadi&tiuction to these two kinds stand both themdustiial class, which is deiiendent on and dnected In the geneial wants, and the uuiveisal class, which is esseiitialh cle2)endent u2ion the state The sei imty and stability ot this pi 02101 tied class inai he incieased still uioie by the institution of jirimogeuituie This, howc‘vei,is desiiable only m reieieiice to the state, since it entails a saeiifice toi the 2>olitical 2iurpose of giving to the eldest son an indeyiendent life Primogeniture is instituted that the state may reckon upon, not the mere yiossibility belonging to sentiment, but upon something necessaiy No'w sentiment, it is tiue, is not bound up with a com2)eteiice But it is lelatively necessary that some having a sufhcient property and being thereby freed from external 2>ies&uie, should step foith without hindiauce aud use thou actii ity for the state But to establish and foster primogenituie where there are no political mstituriiE piiiLosopiir OF right tions would lie iiotliint; but a fetter elo£igui<j' tlic freedom of private ii^ht Unless this fieedom is supplemented by the political sense, it goes to meet its dissolution 307. The light of this pait of the substantive class IS based upon the uatiiie-piiiK ijile of the famili But thiough heaij' saciifices foi the state tins piiniiple is tiansfoiined, and by the tiaiisfoimation Hus class is set apart foi jiolitical activity Hence it is called and entitled to this spheicby biith, without the.leeideiit of choice It thus leceives a stable substantive situation intei mediate between the sub]ective cajiiice and the accidents of the two extremes "While it lesenibles the juniceli function (§ 306), it paiticipates in the uaiits and lights of the othei extreme It thus becomes a suppoit at oiu e to the throne and to the c onimiinity 308 Undei the othci pait of the genoial class elenieiit IS found the fluctuating side of the ciiiccommuiiitv, which externally becaiiso of its numeious niembei ship, and necessarily because of its natuic and oicup.itioii, t.ikes pait m legislation onlv tliiougli deputies II the (iin coiiiiiinnity appoints these deputies, it does so in accoidaiice with its leal nature It is not a numbei of atoms gatlieiing togethei meiely foi a particular and inoiiicntaiv act without any furthei bond of union, but a bodv sistematieallv composed of constituted societies, < ommunities, and loipoiations These vaiious cmles leceiie in this wav jiobtical unity Thiough the lust claim of this pait to be lepiesented bv a deputation to be summoned by the piiucely power, and also thiough the claim of the fiist part to make an appearance (§ 307), the existence of the classes.and of then assembly finds its pecuhar constitutional giiaiantee.
Note — It is held that all should shaie individually in the counsels and decisions regarding tlie general affairs of state The leason assigned is that all aie membcis of the state, its affairs aie the affairs of all, and foi the tiansactiun of these aJflairs all with then knowledge and will have THE STATE a right to be iiicseiit. This is a notion ivhicli, although it has no reasonable ioim, the demouatic element "would inscit into the oigaiiism of state, notwithstanding the fact that the state is an oigamsni only because ot its leasonalile ioim This supeificial "view fastens upon and adheres to the alisliautiou “ iiiembei oi the state ” But the rational method, the coiis( lousiiess ot the idea, is concrete and is eonibiiied i\ith the tine practical sense, which is itself nothing else than the lational sense oi the sense for the idea Yet Hus sense is not to be confounded with meie husmoss loutuie, oi hounded b\ the lioiizon of a limited s 2 iheie The conciete state is the whole, aiticulated into its jiaiticulai elides, and the iiieinliei of the state is the inembei of a cucle oi class Oul\ his objective chaiactei can 1)0 iccoginzcd m the state His general chaiactei contains the tuofoki clement, junate peison and thinklug iK'isoii, and thiuKiiig is the consciousuess and willing of the uuueisal But constiousiii'ss and will cease to be emiity oiilv when they aie filled with jiai ticulaiity, and b\ jiaiticulaiity is meant the diaiacteiistic of a jiaitieiilai class The individual is sjiecies, let us say, but has his mtiinsic geucial actuality in the sjiecies next above it He attains actual and vital coutact with the umveisal in the S 2 )heie ot the coijioi.itious and societies (§ 251) It lemaiiis ojieii to him bv means ol his skill to make his wav into any class, foi idiich he has the La])acity, mcludmg the umveisal class Aiiothei assumjfiiou. found in the cuiient idea that all should liai e a shaie iii the business of state, is that all uudeistand this husiuess This is as absuid as it, despite its absuichtj, is widespioad However, thiough the channel of jiuhhc oiiimon (§ 316) eveiy one is fiee to express and make good liis subjective opinion concerning the umveisal