309 Counsels and decisions ujwu umveisal concerns recpiiie delegates, who aii‘ chosen uiidei the belief that they have a better understanding of state business than the I III: PIIILOSOPIIY Ol' KKJiri electois tlicmselvcs Tlievaie ti listed to piosciute not the pni'ticiilar lutei est of a t omtunnitvoi a loi poiation in opposition to the 111111 01 sal, Init the iiim ei s,il oiilv Hence to the deputies.iic not eoininitted speiihe inanil.ites oi explicit iiistiiictions But piht as little has Ihe assemhlv tlu‘ character meiely of a lively a;atheiine of pm sons, each of whom IS hent upon instnictin£{, (oiivim iinr. and advisiiie; tlu* lest Addiiion — In the lase of ic]»ie~enta 1 ioii consent is not sjiven diiectlv l>v all. hut hv those iilio,iie (jiialified. siine here the incliiidu.il lotei is no lontrci a ineic infinite peison Iccpieseiitation is hased upon confideine, hut confidence is diileient fioin smiplv castiin; a lote To ho guided hy the maioiitv ot votes is anlayonistic to the princiiilc th.at I must meet mv duly as a pai'ticiihii person We have (onficlencc in a iiei'ini iihen we helievp in Ills insiirht and his inlliiiffness to tie.il inv nftaiv as his own accoidiiiff to the hest lisht ot his Iniowledgo and < onscience Thi’ piiiiciplo of the individual sulip'clivo will also disapjieais, for confidence is loiueined with a thing, the guiding hIcmIs of a man. Ins hehavioiii. his acts his concrete iinclei standing A lejnesenhihie must have a character, insight, and will lapahle of paitn i^iatiiig in iiiiiveisal husiucss He s])ealcs not in his cliaiactei as an ahstiact individual, hut as one iiho secies to inalce good his inteicsts in an assemhlv occupied with the iinixcisal And the elector-, merely ask for some gnaiantee that the delegate shall laiiv out and fmthci this universal 310 Indejiendciil moans has its light in th(“ fii st ^siit of the classes The guarantee implied in a qualification and sentiment adequate to public ends is found in the second pair, which aiises out of the fluctuating, variable element of th(' ( ivic community It is chiefly found in sentiment, skill and piactical knowledge of the mteiests of the state.ind civil community, all of which qualities aic acqniied lliiough actual conduct of husiiiess in the iiiagistiacies and pulilic olnces, anclaiepieseivedhi pi actical use Itiafuuud Tin: STATE 319 present, too. in the ofRnal oi political sense, ■which is fashioned and tested hv.irtual expel lence Note — Snhiective opinion leadily finds *the demand for jruarant(>es.snjierflnons oi inpiiions, when it is made upon the so-called ]iro])le But the* state eontams the oh]ective as its clistin!j;mshiii« li.iit, and not snhiective opinion ■with its self-confidcnice Indnidnals can he foi the state only what 111 them is ohicttivclv i eeo«ni7,ihle and approved. Since this second pait of the cl.iss edennent has its root m paiticulai niteicsis and toncoiiis, where accident, change,.and capiice have the light to disjioit themselves, the state mnsi hcic' look the inoie closely.iflci the ob^jective The extciual qnalification of a coitain pioperty appears, when ■lake'll ahshac ilv, a onc'-sidcd cxteinal extieme, m contiast nith the otlioi pist as one-sidcd extieme, namelv,the mcie snhiective coiifidente and opinion of the electors Each 111 its absti.iition is distingni^hcd from the conciete cjiialific ations, indicated in § 302 which aie locpiiied of those wlio advise c onu'ining the bnsmess of state — Neverthc'lc'ss. in the choice' of a magistiato or othci officei of a society 01 an assoc lation, a piopcitv C|nahfi( ation is rightly inaclo,i condition, espcciallv as ninchof the business is adluiiiisteied witliont lemnnc-iation Tins qualification has also diiect value' in legard to the political business of the classes, if tlie incrabc'is iccoive no salaiv 311 T)e]inties fiom the civic ronimnnitv should be acquainted with the iiaiticulai needs and iiiteiests of the bodi ■svhich thej lepiesent, and also with the special obstacles which ought to be lemoved They should theiefoic be clioson fioin amongst themselves Such a delegation is natni.illv appointed by the difPeront corporations of the civic commmntv (§ 308) by a simple piocess, which is not distmbod by abstiactions and atomistic notions Thus they fulfil the point of view of the community diiectlv, and eithei an elc'ctioii is altogethci superfluous, or the play of opinion and capiice is reduced to a minimum.
'iiir PHILOSOPHY OF Eioiir.
Note — It IS a manifest advantacte to have anion>;st the delegates individuals who lepieseiit eveiy consideiahle special hiaiich of the community, such as trade, iiiauiifactuie, etc These individuals must be thoionghly acquamted with then Inanth and belong to it In the idea of a loose, indefinite election this important tiicuinstaiico is given o^el to accident Even branch, hovevei, has an equal rnilit to be ropiescnted To regard llii' deputies as repi esentatives lias a signihiaine that is oiganic and rational, only if they aie not lejnesentatnes of meie sejiarate individuals oi of a lueie inultiliide, but of one of the essential spheies of the (ominumh and of its laigei interests Eepiesentation no longei means th.it one poison should take tlio place of aiiothei Eatliei is tlio mtoiest itself actually pieseiit m the xieison ot the icpiesentatne, smce he is tlioio in behalf of his own oli)e(lne natuie Of elections by means of nitinv s(‘])aiato ja'isons it ma\ be observed that theic is necessaiily little dcsiie to rote because one vote has so slight an iiilluence Even ■when those who aie entitled to vote aie told how es.iu‘nioly valuable then pnnlege n, thcv do not vote Hence occius _]ust the opposite of what is sought The selection j’asscs into the hands of a few, a single p.iity, oi a special accidental inteiest, which should lathei be neutializecl 312 Of the two elements compiised under the classes, each bungs into council a paitu nlai inodifii atioii As one of these elements has within the sjdici o ot the classes the peculiai function of mediation, and that, too, between tuo things winch both exist, it has a separate existence The assembly of the classes is thus divided into two chambeis.
313 Bv this separation the nnmhei of coiiits is increased, and there is a greatei ceitaiiity of matuie judgment Moreover, an accidental decision, secuicd on tlie spui of the moment by a simple niajoiity of the votes, is rendeied iiincli less piobable But these aic not the mam advantages Theie is, besides, smallei oppoitunity oi THE STATE occasion foi diiect opposition to arise between the class element and the Eioverninent Or in the case -when the mediating element is also found on the side of the lower chambei, the insight ot this lonei house becomes all the stioiigei, since it in this case appeals to be more impartisan and its ojiposilion to be ncutialized 314 The classes aie not the sole investigators of the aftaiis ot state and solo indges of the general interest. Rathei do then loini ineielv an addition (§ 301) Then distmctiio tiait is that, as then lepicsent the membeis of the ciiic C'onimuinti who lia^e no shaie in the government, it is thiongh then co-o])eiating knowledge, connsel, and judgment that the element of toinial fieedom attains its light Resides, a geneial acquamtame with state affairs is 11101 e widely extended thiough the publicity given to the tiansactioiis of tlio classes 315 Bi moans of tins avenue to knowledge pubhc opmiou lust attams to tiue thoughts, and to an insight luto the condition and concojitiou ot the state and its concerns It thus hist leaclies the capacity of judging latioiially concemiiig them It leains, besides, to know and esteem the iiiauageuieiit, talents, ciitues, and skill of the diffeiont oiliceis of state While these talents by receiving public itv aie given a stioiig impulse towaids levelopmeut and an lionouiablc held foi exhibiting their woitli, they aie also an antidote toi the pride of indiiidnals and of the multitude, and aic one of the best means toi then education Addition — To open the pioceedmgs of the assembly of classes to the public is of great educational value, especially for the citizens By it the jieople leain most certainly the tiiie natuie of then mtciests Theie prevails extensively the idea that everybody knows already what is good for the state, and that this gcncial knowledge is merely given uttciaucc to in a state assembly But, indeed, the very opposite is the fact Here, hrst of all are developed T TllK PHILOSOPHY OF EIGHT virtues, talents, skill, ■vvliidi have to aer\e as examples Indeed, these assembheM may be awkward for the mimsters, who must here buckle on then wit and eloquence ti> resist the attack''- (>! their opp."euts Pnbhcitj is the greatest opportunity tor instructnni in the state interests ijenerally. Amongst a ]ieopl(*, itheie publicity is the rule, there is seen quite a difterent attitude towaids the state than in those ])laeC‘S tiheie state assembln s aie lejt found or are seciet Us the publication of evi'ry pioceediu'^, the chambeis are hist bioiiuht into union mill the lar^ei "Cneral opinion It is shown that uhiit a man fancies when he is at home with his wife and friends is one thin!,', and quite another thintf what oicuis in a i^reat ‘'athenno' wheie one clevei stioke annihilates the j*i( < edin" 316 Formal suhiertive fictdoni, iniphiu!' that individuals as such should have and express then own juditment, oinnion, and adiite < onf emino ailaiis of state, makes its aiipeaiance in that aateieuate, wliifli is called public opinion In it what is absolutely uuivcisal, subst.mtiTe, and true is joined with its opposite, the indiqiendent, jpeculiai, and p.ntieiilai opinions of the mam This phase of exisleme is theietoie the actual coutiadictioii of itself, knowlodcfc is appeaiaufi-, the esM'utial exists diiectly as the unessential Adthtvni — Fuldie opinion is the unor!i:anizcd means through which what a jicojile wills and thinks is made known That which is ellcctive m the state must indeed he in organic 1 elation to it, and in the constitution this is the case But at all times pubhc opinion has heen a great power, and it is especially so in our time, when the principle of subjective fieedom has such importance and significance What now shall be confiimed is confirmed no longer through force, and hut little through use and wont, but mainly by insight and leasons 317 Public opmion contains theiefoie the eternal substantive pxinuples of justice, the true eoutent oud result IHE SrATE of the whole constitution, of legislation, and of the universal condition in geneial It exists in the form of sound human undei standing, that is, of an ethical piiinijde which in the shape of prepossessions inns thiongh everything It contains the tine wants and light tendencies of actuality But when this iniiei phase comes foith into consciousness, it appeals to imaginative thinking in the form of geneial piojiositions It claims to he of interest partly on its onn separate acioiiut, hut it also comes to the assistance of concrete n'asoning u]»on felt wants and ujion the events, aiiangcments, and relations of the state When this happens, there is hionght forward also the whole range of accidental opinion, with its ignorance and pervei Sion, its false Imon ledge and incorrect -judgment Now, as to the i oust loiisness of what is 2>ecnhai in thought and knowledge, uith which the pieseut iihenomenon has to do, it may he 'aid that the worse an opinion is, the more pcculiai and unique it is The had is m its content wholly juitieulai and uunjiie the lational, on the contiary, is the absolutely uunoioiil Tot it is the unique upon which ojiimon founds its exalted self-esteem Xote — ^Hence it is not to be regarded meiely as a differ eiicc in the subjective jwmt of view when it is declared on one side ‘ Vox pojnjli, vox ilc'i, ” and on the othei side fin Aiiosto, for example), ‘ “ Clie I Volgaie igniiiante ogn’ un nprenda E paih pill di quel die iiieno intenda; ’’ hoth phases are found side by side in pubhc opinion Since truth and endless error aie so directly united in it, ' Or in tioctlie “ Znsclilagen kann die Masse, Da 1st sie respektabel, Urtlieilen gehngt ihr luiserabel.”
'iiii: PHILOSOPHY or right either the one oi the otliei is not tiuly in earnest Tt mav seem hard to deiide whith is in earnest, and it would still he hard, even if wo weie to conhne oul^elves to the diiect exjiressioii of luihlic opinion But since in its innei being jiuhlic ojnnjon is the substantive, it is tiiily in caiiiestonlv about that Yet the substantiio cannot be evtiacted from public 01)1111011, It, by its leiy natuio as substantive, can be known oulv out of itself and on its own account No matter what 2>assion is exjiended in siqipoi t of an ojnnion no mattei how seiiously it is defended oi attacked, this is no criteiion of its jnactical vahditv Yet least of all would opinion toleiate the idea that its oaiiiestiiess is not eainesl at all A great mind has iinblicly laised the tiueslion, wliethei it be peimittcd to dcceue a pcojile We must answei that a people does not allow itself to be dcceivod in legaid tC) its substantive basis, oi the essence and definite chaiactei of its spiiit, but in icgaid to the way in which it linows this, and judges ot its acts and jihases, it deceives itself Addition — Tlie jniiKiple ot the nioilein woild demands that what eveij' man is bound to lei ogni/e must seem to him justified He, nioreovei, has li.nl a voice in the discussion and decision If he has given Ins woid and indicated that he is rcsiionsible. Ins subjectniU is satisfied and he allon s manj things to go unchallenged In Nranue fieedom of speech has ahvajs jiioved lo&s daiigoious than silence One feais that if a man is silent ho mil letaiii his aveision to an object, but leasoiiing upon it fuiuishes a safety-valve and brings satisfaction, while the object, in the meautime, pursues its way unmolested 318 Public opmion deserves, therefore, to be esteemed and despised, to be despised in its conciete consciousness and cxpiession, to be esteemed in its essential basis. At best, its inner nature makes meiely an appearance in its concioto expression, and that, too, in a moic oi less tioubled shape Since it has not within itself the means ot 'llli: S'lA'lE 'llli: S'lA'lE diawmg distinctions, nor the capacity to laiae its substantive side into definite knowledge, independence of it is the first foimal condition of anything gieat and leasouable, whether in actuality oi in science Of any reasonable end we may he suie that jmhlic opinion will ultimately be l>leasod -nilli it, lecogmze il, and constitute it one of its pre 2 'ossessions Addition — In jiublic o 2 »iniou all is false and true, but to find out the tiutli in it is the altaii of the great man He who tells the time what it mils and means, and then bungs it to comiiletion, is the gieat man of the time. In his act the lunei signituance and essence ot the time IS ac I iiahzed Who does not leain to desjuse public, oiniuoii, nhicli is one thing m one place and anothei in anothei, mil novel piodme anything great 319 The libeih ot taking jiait in state atians, the piickmg imijulse to sai and to have s.iid one’s opinion, is diiectly sccuied by jiolice laws and regulations, which, liowevci, liiudei and jutiiish the excess of this liberty Iniliiect socuiitv Is based niioii the government’s stiength, which Ik's iiiaiiih m the laliouahtv of its constitution and the stability lit itsineasuies. but 2 >ai tly also iiithejiublicity given to the assemblies ot the classes Security is guaranteed by jmblicitv in so fai as the assemblies voice the matuie and educated insight mto the interests of the stale, and pass ovei to otheis nhat is less significant, esiiecidlly if the) aie disabused ot the idea that the utterances ot these otheis aie jieculiaily im^ioitant and efficacious Besides, a bioad guaiantee is found m the general indifEeience and contempt, with which shallow and mahcious utterances aie quickly and cftectually visited Note — One means of fieely and widely participating in jiublic affaiis is the juess, which, m its more extended range, is supeiioi to siieech, although mfeiioi in vivacity — To define the libeity of the pi ess as the libeity to speak and write what one pleases is parallel to the definition of hberty UIIE PHILOSOPHY OK RI&Hl.
m general, as liberty to do ■what one pleases These views belong to the mideveloiicd ciudity and suiJcifaoiahti of tanciful theoiizing Nowheie so much as lu tins mattei does iormalisin hold its giound so obstinately, and so little jiermits itselt to be influenced by leasoiis And this n as to be ex^jected, because the object is hoie the most tiansieiit, accidental, and paiticulai in the whole range of opinion, with its infamte vanety oi (oiitent and aspect Ot conise Iheie IS no obscuiity about a diiect summons to steal niuider, or revolt. But, aside tioin that, much depends on the manner and fomi of cxjnessiou The words iiiav seem to be quite geneial and undehued, and yet may conceal a perfectly definite significance iiesidcs, they mas hat e consecjuences, which are not ai tiialh' e,\i')iessetl Indeed, it may even be debated w hethei these consequences are really in the expression and piopeily follow tioin it This mdefimteness in the form and in the substance does not admit of the laws attammg in this case the precision usually demanded ot latvs Since lu tins field ciiine, wrong, and injustice have their most particular and snbjec tn o shape, the indefiniteness ot the wrong causes the sentence also to be completelj subjective Besides, the mjuii is in this inattei sought to be done to and make itselt leal in the thought, opmioii, and will of others But it thus comes into contact ■with the fieedom ot otheis, upon whom it depends whethci the act is actually an injury oi not Hence, the laws aie open to cnticisui because of then mdefiniteness By the skillul use ot tcims they may he evaded, or, on the other hand, it may be contended that the sentence is merely subjective It may be maintained further that an expression is not a deed but only an opinion, or thought, or a simple saymg Thus, from the mere subjectivity of content and from the insignificance of a mere opinion 01 saymg the inference is diawn that these words should pass unpunished Yet in the same breath there is demanded as great a respect and esteem for that very opinion of mine as for my real mental possession, and foi the utterance of that opinion as for the deliheiateutteiance of a mental 2 iossessiou The fact lomains that injury to the honour of individuals generally, as libel, abuse, disdainful treatment of the government, its ofiicials and officcis, especially the person of the piincc, contempt foi the laurs, incitement to civd broil, etc, aie all ciiines or faults of ditteient magnitudes The greater ludefiiuteness of these acts, due to the element m which they find utterance, does not annul their real chaiactei It siinjily causes the subjective giound, on which the oftence is committed, to decide the nature and shape of the leaction It is this subjective nature of the ofEence, which m the leaction comerts subjectivity and uncertaintv into necessitj, whether this leaction be meie prevention of Clime by the pohee oi specific punishment Heie, as always, foimalisni relies on isolated aspects, belonging to the e\teiual appeaiam e, and seeks by these abstractions of its own creation to reason away the real and concicto nature of the thing As to the sciences, they, if thei are sciences m reality, are not found m the region of opinion and subjective thought, noi does their method of juescntation consist in the adioit use of teiiiis, oi allusions, oi half-utteied, halfconcealed opinions, but in the simjile, definite, and open expression of the sense and meaning. Hence, the sciences do not come uiidei the categoiv of jiublic opinion For the rest, the element in which juibhc opmion finds utterance and becomes an overt and tangible act is, as we have already observed, the intelhgence, principles, and opinions of others It is this element which determmes the peculiar effect of these acts or the danger of them to individuals, the commumty or the state (§ 218), just as a spark, if thrown upon a heaji of gunpowder, is much more dangerous than if thrown on the ground, where 'IHi: PHILOSOPHY OF RIGHT it goes out autl Icares no trace — Hence, as the riglit of science finds sccuiity m the content of its matter, so also may an ntteicd wrong find secunty, or, at least, toleration, in the contempt with which it is icceived Offences, which aie in stiictness punishable at law, may thus paitly come under a kind of nemesis Intein.il impotence, by opposing itself to the talents and viitues, by which it feels oppressed, comes m this wav to itself, and gives selt-consciousuess to its ow n nothingness A moie haimless foini of nemesis was found amongst the Ivoman soltlieis in the satiiical songs diiccted against thc‘ir eiiiperois on the tiiiiinplial maicli Haiiug gone thiongh liard sen lee, and yet failing to secuie mention in the list of honours, the\ sought to get even with the empeioi in this Testing w'a\ But eion the mnic'is which is bad and malevolent is. when tieated wntli scoin, depiivcd of its effect Like the jiublic, which to some extent forms a ( iicle for this kind ol ai liiitv, it is limited to a meaningless delight in otheis’ mi&foi tunes and to a condemnation, wlin h IS inheient in itself 320 Theie is the sub]cctnity, wliuli is the dissolution of the established state hte It has its extei iial m.uufcstatiou in the opinion oi leasoning, which, in seeking to nialce good its own landom aims, destiovs itself This suli-jei tivity has its tine leality ni its opposite, namely, in that suhiectmty, which, being identical ivith the substantive will, and i.onstituting the conceiition of the pnncelj' power, is the idealitv of the whole This higliei subiectiMly has not as j ct received la this treatise its light and visible embodiment Addition — We have already regarded subjectivity as existing in the monarch, and in that capacity occupying the pinnacle of the state The other side of subjectinty manifests itself arbitrarily and quite externally in public opinion The subjectivity of the monarch is in itself dbstiact, but it should be concrete, and should as concrete be the ideality winch diffuses itself over the whole. In the state which ib at peace, all Inanches of the civic life have their subsistence, but this subsistence beside and outside of one anothei the blanches have only as it issues out of the idea of the whole This process or idealization of ihe whole must also have its own manifestation II Externai, Sovcreiontt.
321 Iiitemal soveiencntv (§ 278) is this ideality in so iiU as the elements of spiiit. and of the state as the embodiment ot spiiit, aie unfolded in their necessity, and subsist as oigaiis of the state But spiiit, involvmg a lefoieiKc ti' itself, ubich is negative and infinitely free, becomes an independent existence, which has incorporated the bulihistent difteieiitos, and hence is exclusive So constituted, the state has an individuality, which exists essentially as an indnidiial, and in the sovereign is a real, direct individual (§ 279) 322 Individuality, as exclusive and independent existence, apiieais as a i elation to otliei self-dependent states riie independent existence of the actual spirit finds an enibodiinent in this geneial self-dependence, which is, theiefoic, the fiist fiecdom and highest dignity of a peojile Note — ^Tliose who, out of a desne foi a collective whole, which will constitute a moie oi less self-dependent state, and have its own centie, are willing to abandon their own centie and self-dependence, and foiiii with others a new whole, aie ignoiaiit of the nature of a collective whole, and undeiiate the pride of a people in its mdependence — The force, which states have on then first appearance in history, 13 this self-dependence, even though it is quite abstract and has no fuithei iiiteinal development Hence, m its most primitive inamfestation, the state has at its head an individual, whethei he be patriarch, chief, or what not.
TIIH PIIILOSOPirV OF RIGH’l.
323 In actual loalitj', tins nep;ative reference of the state to itseli appeals as lefeieuce to each othei of two independent things, as though the negative weic some external thing This negative lefeience has, theiefore, in its existence tlie foini oi an event, involving acudental occuiiences coming fioni without Eut it is iii tact its own highest element, its leal intiiiitude the idealization of all its finite iiiateiials The substance, as the absolute liower, is lieie biought into conliast with all that is individual and iiaiticulai, such as lite, juojieity, the lights of propert}", oi even wider ciiclcs, and makes then lelatiie worthlessness a fact foi consciousness 324 The phase, according to winch the niteiest and light of individuals is made a vamshnig tact or, is at the same time a positive element, forming the basis of then, not accidental and fleeting, but absolute luchviduahty This lelation and the lecognitioii ot it constitute then substantial dutv PioiKut^ aud hie, not to S 2 )eak of opinions and the oidmaiy loutme ot existence, tlicv must sacrifice, if neccssaiy, in oidcr to pieseive the substantiic individuality, ludeiieiidonce, and soveieiguty of the state Note — It IS a veiy distorted account of the iiiattei when the state, in demanding saciihcos fioiii the citizens, is taken to be simiily the ciiic community, ivhosu object is merely the security of life and jiiopoity Set uiity cannot possibly be obtained by the saciihcc of what is to be seemed Herein is to be found the ethical element in wai War IS nut to be regarded as an absolute evil It is not a merely external accident, having its accidental ground m the passions of powerful individuals or nations, in acts of injustice, or in anything which ought not to be Accident befalls that which is by nature accidental, and this fate is a necessity So from the standjioint of the conception and in philosophy the merely accidental vanishes, because m it, as it is a mere appearance, is recognized its ’IHE STATE ’IHE STATE esBeuce, namolv, necessitj. It is necessary that what is finite, such as life and piopertj, should have its contingent nature exposed, since contingency is inheient in the conception of the finite This necessity has in one phase of it the form of a loicc of nature, smce all that is finite is moital and tiansicnt But m the ethical life, that is to say, the state, tliia ioice and natiiie are separated. Necessity becomes m this waj- exalted to the woik of fieedoin, and becomes a force nliicli is cthiciil What from the standpoint ol natuic is ti.insient, is now transient because it IS willed to be sc, and that, which is fundamentally negatiie, becomes substantive and distinctive individuality in the ethical older It IS olten said, for the sate of edification, that wai makes short Moik oi the vanity of tciupoial things. It is the elemeut by which the idealization ot what is particular receives its light and becomes an actuality Moieovei, by it, as I hare elscwheie expressed it, "finite pursuits are rendered unstable, and the ethical health ot j)eoides is pi 08011 ed Just as the inoiement of the ocean prevents the coiiuptiou 11111011 would be the result of iieipetual calm, so bj iiai jicoplc escape the corruption which would bo occasioned bv a continuous oi eternal peace ” — The new that this cpiotatioii contains merely a philosophical idea, Ol, as it is soniotimes called, a justification of prondenco, and that actual wai needs another Inncl of justification, mil be taken up latei The idealization, which comes to the suitace in war, viewed as an accidental foreign relation, is the same as the ideahty by virtue of which the internal state functions are organic elements of the whole. This principle is found m history m such a fact as that successful wars have preiented civil broils and strengthened the internal power of the state So, too, peoples, who have been unwilling oi afraid to endure internal sovereignty, have been subjugated by others, and in their struggles for independence have had honour and success THE PHILOSOPHY OF KI&HJ’.
small lu propoition to then failure to establish ivitbin themselves a eeiitial political iioivei, then fieedom died through then feai of its dying Moieovei, states, whi<h have no guaiautee of mdeiiendi-nce nithe stiength of then army, states, <■ (/, that aie veiv small in compaiison with then ncighbouis, hai e i ontinued to subsist because of their internal Lonstitutinn, ivliieh ineieh of itseli would seem to promise them neithci niteinal lepose noi external seciiiitv These phenomena aie ilhistiations of oiii piniuple diaiiii fiom Instoiv.
Addition — In peace the hmc hte beiomos iiioio and moie extended Eaih sepaiate •«]>heie walls itself m and becomes exdusiie, and at last Iheie is a stagnation of mankind Then paiticnlaiitv be. oine-> iiioii- and nioie fixed and ossified Unity of the bodv is i‘ssenti.il to health, and wheie the organs become haid death ensues Everlasting peace is fiequentlv demanded as the ideal towards which maukiiid must move Hence, Kant jiioposod an alliance of piiiiies. nhuli should settle the i niitioveisies of states, and the Holi Alli.inco was piobablj intended to be an institution of this kind But the state is iiidnidnal, and in individuality negation is essentially implied Although a uumbei of states mai make themselves into a familv, the union, hecause it is an indiiiduality, must tieate an opjiositiou, and so beget an eneniv As a lesult of wai iieoples aie stiengthened, nations mIikIi aie involved in civil qiiariels, winning lepose at home b\ means of war abioad It is tiiie that wai occasions lusecuiitj of possessions, but this leal insecurity is simply a necessary I ommotiou From the pulpit we hear much regarding the iinccrtainti, vanity, and instability of temjioial things At the veiy same time every one, no matter how much he is iinpi essed by these utterances, thinks that he will manage to ictam his own stock and store But if the uncertainty comes in the form of hussais with glistening sabres, and begins to woik m downright earnest, this touchmg edifica- THE SlA'l'E THE SlA'l'E tion turns about face, and bulls curses at the invader In spite of this, wars aiise, when they lie in the nature of the luattei The seeds sjuiug up afiesh, and words aie silenced befoio the earnest lepetitious of history 32o Saeiifi.ee for the sate of the individuahty of the state IS the substautiie lelation ot all the citizens, and is, thus, a uiiiieisal duly It is ideality on one of its sides, and stands in c outlast to the lealitv ot jiaiticular subsistence Hence it itseli becomes a specific i elation, and to it is dedicated a class ot its oiin, the class whose viitue is biavei_\ 326 Dissensions between states may arise out of anj one siiecifac side ot then lelalions to each other Thiough these dissensions the specilie i>ai L ot the state devoted to detence leccivcs its distinguishing chaiacter But if the w hole state, as such, is m daugei ot losing its independence, duti summous all the citizens to its defence If the whole becomes a single toice, and is toin fioin its internal position and goes abioad, defence becomes converted into a wai ot couej^uest