A parallel truth is disclosed on watching how there evolves the regulating system of a political aggregate, and how there are developed those appliances for offence and defence put in action by it. Everywhere the wars between societies originate governmental structures, and are causes of all such improvements in those structures as increase the efficiency of corporate action against environing sogieties. Observe, first, the conditions under which there is an absence of this agency furthering combination; and then observe the conditions nnder which this agency begins to show itself.
Where food is scarce^ diCFusion great, and co-operation consequently hindered, there is no established chieftainship. The Fuegians, the Cayagaas or Wood-Indians of South America, the Jungle-Veddahs of Ceylon, the Bushmen of South Africa, are instances. They do not form unions for defence, and have no recognized authorities: personal predominance of a temporary kind, such as tends to arise in every group, being the only approach to it. So of the Esquimaux, necessarily much scattered, Heame says — " they live in a state of perfect freedom; no one apparently claiming the superiority over, or acknowledging the least subordination to, another: '' joined with which fact stands the fact that they do not know what war means. And in like manner where barrenness of territory negatives anything more than occasional assemblings, as with the Chippewayans, there is nothing like chieftainship beyond the effect due to character; and this is very small. In other cases adequate concentration is negatived by the natures of the people. They are too little social or too little subordinate. It is thus with the Abors, Hill-tribes of India, who, '^ as they themselves say, are like tigers, two cannot dwell in one den,^' and who have their houses '' scattered singly or in groups of two and three.*^ It is thus, too, as before pointed out (§ 35), with the Mantras of the Malay peninsula, who " separate if they dispute." Here both the diffusion and the disposition causing the diffusion, check the evolution of a political head. But it is not only in cases like these that governmental co-ordination is absent. It is absent also among tribes that are settled and considerably more advanced, provided they are not given to war. Among such Papuans as the Araf uras and the people of Dalrymple Island, there are no chiefs: the people living " in such peace and brotherly love with one another " that they need no control but the de- 5^2 TH1£ INDUCTIONS OF SOCIOLOaT.
cisionB of their elders. The Tcdas, too, wholly without military organization^ and described as peaceable, mild, friendly, have no political headships. So again is it with the placable Bodo and fihimals; described as having many amiable qualities — ^being honesty truthful, entirely free from revenge, cruelty, and violence — and whose headmen have authorities scarcely more than nominal. To which, as similarly significant, I nuiy add that the Lepchas, referred to by Dr. Hooker as " really amiable,^' are said by Campbell to be " wonderfully honest,'' " singularly forgiving of injuries,'' '^making mutual amends and concessions"; while at the same time " they are averse to soldiering, and cannot be induced to enlist in our army," and are so little subordinate that they fly to the jungle and live on roots rather than submit to injustice.
Now observe how the headless state is changed and political co-ordination initiated. Edwards says the Caribs in time of peace admitted no supremacy: only their old men had a kind of ill-defined authority; but, he adds, ''in war, experience had taught them that subordination was as requisite as courage." So, too, describing the confederation of tribes among the Caribs, Humboldt says they are " warlike hordes who see no advantage in the ties of society but for common defence." Of the Creeks, whose subordination to authority is but slight, Swan tells us ''it would be diflScult, if not impossible, to impress on the community at large the necessity of any social compact, that should be binding upon it longer than common danger threatened them." Again Bonwick says — " Chieftains undoubtedly did exist among the Tasmanians, though they were neither hereditary nor elective. They were, nevertheless, recognized, especially in time of war, as leaders of the tribes. ^ ^ -n- After the cessation of hostilities they retired to the quietude of every-day forest life." In other cases we find a permanent change produced. Kotzebue says the Kamtschadales "acknowledge no chief"; while THB RBOHLATIKQ SYSTEM. 543 Grieve says that the only authority waa that of '' the old men^ or those who were remarkable for their brayery/' And then it is remarked that these statements refer to the time before the Russian conquest — before there had been combined opposition to an enemy. This develop* mont of simple headship in a tribe by conflict with other tribes^ we find advancing into compound headship along with larger antagonisms of race with race. Of the Pata* gonians Falkner tells us that though the tribes ''are at continual variance among themselves^ yet they often join together against the Spaniards.^' It was the same with the North American Indians. The confederacy of the six nations^ which held together under a settled system of cooperation, resulted from war with the English. Stages in the genesis of this compound controlling agency by con* flict with other societies are shown us by the Polynesians. In Samoa eight or ten village-communities^ which are in other respects independent^ *' unite by common consent, and form a district or state for mutual protection. * * 4t When war is threatened by another district, no single village can act aloue; « « « Some of these districts or states have their king; others cannot agree on the choice of one; « « * there is no such thing as a king, or even a district whose power extends all over the group. Yet in case of war, Uiey sometimes combine in twos or threes."
Early histories of the civilized similarly show us how union of smaller social aggfregates for offensive or defensive purposes^ necessitating co-ordination of their actions^ tends to initiate a central co-ordinating agency. Instance the Hebrew monarchy: the previously-separate tribes of Israelites became a nation subordinate to Saul and David, during wars with the Moabites, Ammonites^ Edomites and Philistines. Instance the case of the Greeks: the growth of the Athenian hegemony into mastership, and the organization, political and naval, which accompanied it, was a concomitant of the continued activity of the confederacy ti gainst external enemies. Instance in later times the development 544 THB INDUCTIONS OF BOCIOLOOT.
ot governments among Teutonic peoples. At the beginning of the Christian era there were only chieftainships of separate tribes; and, during wars, temporary greater chieftainships of.allied forces. Between the first and the fifth centuries the federations made to resist or invade the Roman empire did not evolve permanent heads; but in the fifth century the prolonged military activities of these federations ended in the military leaders becoming kings over consolidated states.
As this difEerentiation by which there arises first a temporary and then a permanent military head, who passes insensibly into political head, is initiated by conflict with adjacent societies, it naturally happens that his political power increases as military activity continues. Other things equal, corporate action of a society in war is effective in proportion as obedience to a commander is profound; and obviously if success, thus going along with submission to control, leads to the conquest or extermination of peoples who are less subordinate, it follows that the subordination causing success in wars, and the consequent persistence in wars, tend to go together and to further one another. Everywhere, providing extreme difiusion does not prevent, we find this union of predatory activity with submission to despotic rule. Asia shows it in the Kirghiz tribes, who are slavehunters and robbers, and of whose manaps, once elective but now hereditary, Michael says — ''The word manap literally means a tyrant, in the ancient Greek sense. It was at first the proper name of an elder distinguished for his cruelty and unrelenting spirit; from him the appellation became general to all the Kirghiz rulers.*' Africa shows it iTi the cannibal Niamniams, whose king is unlimited lord of persons and things; or again in the sanguinary Daliomans with their Amazon army, and in the warlike Ashantees all trained to arms: both of them under governments so absolute that the highest officials are slaves to the king.
Polynesia shows it in the Pijians, whose tribes are ever fight- THY ERQULATINO 8TSTSH. 545 ing with and eating one another^ and among wHom loyalty to absolute rulers is the eztremest imaginable — even so ex* treme that people of a slave district '' said it was their duty to become food and sacrifices for the chiefs/' This relation between the degree of power in the political head and the degree of military activity^ has^ indeed^ been made familiar to us in the histories of ancient and modem civil* ized races. The connexion is implied in the Assyrian inscriptions as well as in the frescoes and papyri of Egypt. The case of Pausanias and other such cases^ were regarded by the Spartans themselves as showing the tendency of generals to become despots — as showings that is, the tendency of active operations against adjacent societies to generate centralized political power. How the imperativeness fostered by continuous command of armies, and affecting a society in proportion as its armies are identified with it, thus passes into political imperativeness, has been again and again shown us in later histories.
Here, then, the induction we have to carry with us is that as in the individual organism that nervo-muscular apparatus which carries on conflict with environing organisms, begins with, and is developed by, that warfare; so the governmental-military organization of a society, is initiated by, and evolves along with, the wars between societies. Or to speak more strictly, there is thus evolved that part of its governmental organization which conduces to efficient cooperation against other societies.
§ 251. The development of the regulating system may now be dealt with. Let us first trace the governmental agency through its stages of complication.
In small and little-difierentiated aggregates, individual and social, the regulating structure does not become complex: neither the need for it nor the materials for forming and supporting it, exist. But complexity begins in compound aggregates. In either case its commencement is seen N N 546 THE INDUCTIONS OF BOCIOLOOT.
in the rise of a saperior co-ordiiiating centre exercising control over inferior centres. Among Animfils the Annidosa illastrate this most clearly. In an annelid the like nervous stractures of the like snccessiYC segments, are but little subordinated to any chief ganglion or group of ganglia* But along with that evolution which, integrating and differentiating the segments, produces a higher annulose animal, there arise at the end which moves foremost, more developed senses and appendages for action, as well as a cluster of ganglia connected with them; and along with formation of this goes an increasing control exercised by it over the ganglia of the posterior segments. Not very strongly marked in such little-integrated types as centipedes, a nervous centralization of this kind becomes great in such integrated types as the higher crustaceans and the arachnida. So is it in the progress from compound social aggregates that are loosely coherent to those which are consolidated. Manifestly during those early stages in which the chief of a conquering tribe succeeds only in making the chiefs of adjacent tribes tributary while he lives, the political centralization is but slight; and hence, as in cases before referred to in Africa and elsewhere, the powers of the local centres re-assert themselves when they can throw off their temporary subordination. Many peoples that have got beyond the stage of separate simple tribes, show us, along with various degrees of cohesion, various stages in the subjection of local governing centres to a general governing centre. When first visited, the Sandwich Islanders had a king with turbulent chiefs, formerly independent; and in Tahiti there was similarly a monarch with secondary rulers but little subordinate. So was it with the New Zealanders; and so was it with the Malagasy until a century since. The nature of the political organization during such stages, is shown us by the relative decrees of power which the general and special centres exercise over the people of each division. Thus of the Tahitians we read THS BSOTJLATINO 8T8TBM. 547 that the power of the chief was supreme in his own district^ and greater than that of the king over the whole. Lichtenstein tells us of the Koossas that " they are all vassals of the king, chiefs^ as well as those under them; but the subjects are generally so blindly attached to their chiefs, that they will follow them against the king." '^ Scarcely would the slave of an Ashantee chief," says Gruickshank, '' obey the mandate of his king, without the special concurrence of his immediate master." And concerning the three grades of chiefs among the Araucanians, Thompson says of those who rule the smallest divisions that '' their authority is less precarious" than that of the higher officers. These few instances, which might be readily multiplied, remind us of the relations of major and minor political centres in feudal times; when there were long periods during which the subjection of barons to kings was being established — during which failures of cohesion and re-assertions of local authority occurred— during which there was loyalty to the district ruler greater than that to the general ruler.
And now let us note deliberately, what was before implied, that this subordination of local governing centres to a general governing centre, habitually accompanies cooperation of parts of the compound aggregate in its conflicts with other such aggregates. Between such superior Annulosa as the winged insects and clawed crustaceans above described as having centralized nervous systems, and the inferior Annulosa composed of many similar segments with feeble limbs, the contrast, is not only in the absence from these last of centralized nervous systems, but also in the absence of offensive and defensive appendages of efficient kinds. In the high types, nervous subordination of the posterior segments to the anterior, has accompanied the growth of those anterior appendages which preserve the aggregate of segments in its dealings with prey; and this centralization of the nervous structure has resulted from the co-operation of these ext'Cmal organs. It 548 THR ISDUCnONB OV SOCIOLOGT.
is tlms also with tlie political centralizationB which become permAnent. So long as the sabordinaiion is established by internal conflict of the diyisions with one another, and hence involTCS antagonism among them, it remains unstable; but it tends towards stability in proportion as the regalating agents, major and minor, are habituated to combined action against external enemies. The recent changes in Grermany hare re-iUostrated nnder onr eyes this political centralization by combination in war, which was so abundantly illustrated in the Middle Ages by the rise of monarchical governments over numerous fiefs.
How this compound regulating agency for internal control, results from combined external actions of the compound aggregate in war, we may understand on remembering that at first the army and the nation are substantially the same. As in each pnmitiye tribe the men are all warriors, so, during early stages of civilization the military body is co-extensive with the adult male population, excluding only the slaves — co-extensive with all that part of the society which has political life. In fact the army is the nation mobilized, and the nation the quiescent army. Hence men who are local rulers while at home, and leaders of their respective bands of dependents when fighting a common enemy under direction of a general leader, become minor heads disciplined in subordination to the major head j and as they carry more or less of this subordination home with them, the military organization developed during war survives as the political organization during peace.
Chiefly, however, we have here to note that in the compound regulating system formed during the formation of a compound social aggregate, what were originally independent local centres of regulation become dependent local centres, serving as deputies under command of the general centre; just as the local ganglia above described become agents acting under direction of the cephalic ganglia.
§ 252. This formation of a compound regulating system THE RiauIATINa 8T8TEM. 549 obaracterized by a dominant centre and subordinate centres^ is accompanied^ in botb individual organisms and social organisms^ hj increasing size and complexity of tbe dominant centre.
In an animal^ along with deyelopment of senses to yield information and limbs to be guided in conformity with it, so that by their co-operation prey may be caught and enemies escaped, there must arise one place to which the various kinds of information are brought, and from which are issued the adjusted motor impulses; and, in proportion as evolution of the senses and limbs progresses, this centre which utilizes increasingly-varied information and directs bettercombined movements, necessarily comes to have more numerous unlike parts and a greater total mass. Ascending through the annulose sub-kingdom, we find in its higher types this aggregation of optic, auditory, and other ganglia receiving stimuli, together with the ganglia controlling the chief legs, claws, etc. And so in the vertebrate series, beginning in its lowest member with an almost uniform cord formed of local centres undirected by a brain, we rise finally to a cord appended to an integrated cluster of minor centres through which are issued the commands of certain supreme centres growing out of them. In a society it similarly happens that the political agency which gains predominance, is gradually augmented and complicated by additional parts for additional functions. The chief of chiefs begins to require helpers in carrying on control.
He gathers round him some who get information, some with whom he consults, some who execute his commands. No longer a governing unit, he becomes the nucleus in a cluster of governing units constituting the germ of a ministry. Various stages in this compounding, proceeding generally from the temporary to the permanent, may be observed. In the Sandwich Islands the king and governor have each a number of chiefs who attend on them and execute their orders. Ellis says that the Tahitian king had a prime minis« 550 THl IKDUCnOHS OF flOCIOLOOr.
ter, as well as a few chiefs to give advice; and in Samoa, too^ eacli district chief has a sort of prime minister. Tamer tells ns. Africa shows us stages in this progress from simple personal government to government throagh agents.
Among the Beetjoans (a Bechnana people) the king executes "his own sentence^ even when the criminal is condemned to death;" and Lichtenstein also tells us of another group of Bechuanas (the Maatjaping) that his people being disorderly, the monarch " swung his tremendous sjambok of rhinoceros leather, striking on all sides, till he fairly drove the whole multitude before him:'' being thereupon imitated by his courtiers. And then of the Bachassin government, belonging to this same race, we learn from Burchell that the duty of the chiefs brother '^ was to convey the chiefs orders wherever the case demanded, and to see them put in execution.^' Among the Koossas, governed by a king and vassal chiefs, every chief has councillors, and the great council of the king is composed of the chiefs of particular kraals. Again, the Zulu sovereign shares his power with two soldiers of hia choice, and these form the supreme judges of the country. Then in the larger and more organized kingdoms, the appendages which add to the size and complexity of the governing centre, are many and fully established. In Dahomey, besides two premiers and various functionaries surrounding the king, there are two judges, of whom one or other is " almost constantly with the king, informing him of every circumstance that passes;'' and, according to Burton, every official is provided with a second in command, who is in reality a spy: facts proving that though the king joins in judging causes, and though when his executioners bungle he himself shows them how to cut off heads, yet he has agents around him into whose hands these functions are gradually lapsing; as, in the compound nervous structures above described, there are appended centres through which information is communicated, and appended centres through which the THJB ftlOUIATINa SYSTJCM. 551 decimons pass into execution. How in ciyilized nations analogons developments have taken place — ^how among ourselyes William the Conqueror made his ''justiciar'^ supreme administrator of law and finance, having under him a body of Secretaries of whom the chief was called Chancellor; how the justiciar became Prime Minister and his staff a supreme court, employed alike on financial and judicial afiEairs and in revision of laws; how this in course of time became specialized and complicated by appendages; needs not to be shown in detail. Always the central governing agency while being enlarged, is made increasingly heterogeneous by the multiplication of parts having specialized functions. And then, as in nervous evolution after a certain complication of the directive and executive centres is reached, there begin to grow deliberative centres, which, at first unobtrusive, eventually predominate; so in political evolution, those assemblies which contemplate the remoter results of political actions, beginning as small additions to the central governing agency, outgrow the rest. It is manifest that these latest and highest governing centres perform in the two cases analogous functions. As in a man the cerebrum, while absorbed in the guidance of conduct at large, mainly in reference to the future, leaves the lower, simpler, older centres to direct the ordinary movements and even the mechanical occupations; so the deliberative assembly of a nation, not attending to those routine actions in the body politic controlled by the various administrative agencies, is occupied with general requirements* and the balancing of many interests which do not concern only the passing moment. It is to be observed, also, that these high centres in the two cases, are neither the immediate recipients of information nor the immediate issuers of commands; but receive from inferior agencies the facts which guide their decisions, and through other inferior agencies get those decisions carried into execution. The cerebrum is not a centre of sensation or of motion; but has the function of using the information brought through the 552 THE INDUCTIOHS OV 800IOLOGT* sensory centres, for determining the actions tc be excited by the motor centres. And in like manner a developed legislative body, thongH not incapable of getting impressions directly from the facts, is habitoally goided by impressions indirectly gained throagH petitions, through the press, through reports of committees and commissions, through the heads of ministerial departments; and the judgments it arrives at are executed not by its immediate direction but by the mediate direction of subordinate centres, ministerial, judicial, etc.
One further concomitant may be added. During evolution of the supreme regulating centres, individual and social, the older parts become relatively automatic. A simple ganglion with its afferent and efferent fibres, receives stimuli and issues impulses unhelped and unchecked; but when there gather round it ganglia through which different kinds of impressions come, and others through which go impulses causing different motions, it becomes dependent on these, and in part an agent for transforming the sensory excitements of the first into the motor discharges of the last. As the supplementary parts multiply, and the impressions sent by them to the original centre, increasing in number and variety, involve multiplied impulses sent through the appended motor centres, this original centre becomes more and more a channel through which, in an increasingly mechanical way, special stimuli lead to appropnate actions. Take, for example, three stages in the vertebrate animal. We have first an almost uniform spinal cord, the successive portions of which receive and send out the sensory and motor nerves supplying the successive portions of the body: the spinal cord is here the supreme regulator. Then in the nervous system of vertebrates somewhat more advanced, the medulla oblongata and the sensory ganglia at the anterior part of this cranio*spinal axis, taking a relatively large share in receiving those guiding impressions which lead to motor discharges from the spinal