THl RKGULATma 8TSTBK. 658 cord, tend to make tliis sabordinate and its actions mechanical: the sensory ganglia have now become the chief miers. And when in the coarse of evolation the cerebmm and cerebellum grow, the sensory ganglia with the co-ordinating motor centre to which they were adjoined, lapse into mere receivers of stimuli and conveyers of impulses: the last-formed centres acquire supremacy, and those preceding them are their servants. Thus is it with kings, ministries, and legislative bodies. As the original political head, acquiring larger functions, gathers agents around him who bring data for decisions and undertake execution of them, he falls more and more into the hands of these agents — has his judgments in great degree made for him by informers and advisers, and his deputed acts modified by executive ofiicers: the ministry begins to rule throngh the original ruler. At a later stage the evolution of legislative bodies is followed by the subordination of ministries; who, holding their places by the support of majorities, are substantially the agents executing the wills of those majorities. And while the ministry is thus becoming less deliberative and more executive, as the monarch did previously, the monarch is becoming more automatic: royal functions are performed by commission; royal speeches are but nominally such; royal assents are practically matters of form. This general truth, which our own constitutional history so well illustrates, was illustrated in another way daring the development of the Athenian institutions, political, judicial, and administrative: the older classes of functionaries survived, but fell into subordinate positions, performing duties of a comparatively routine kind.
§ 258. From the general structures of regulating systems, and from the structures of their great centres of control, we must now tarn to the appliances through which control is exercised. For co-ordinating the actions of an aggregate, individual or social, there must be not only a governing 554 THE INDUCTIONS Of SOCIOLOaT.
centre but tHere must also be media of coxmnuiucatioii tbroagli which this centre may affect the parts.
Ascending stages of animal organization carry na from types in which this requirement is scarcely at all fnlfiUed^ to types in which it is fulfilled effectually. Aggregates of yery humble orders, as Sponges, Thallaasicollce, etc., without co-ordinating centres of any kind, are also without means of transferring impulses from part to part; and there is no co-operation to meet an enyironing action. In Hydrossoa and Aetinozoaj not possessing visible centres of coordination, slow adjustments result from the diffusion of molecular changes from part to part through the body: contraction of the whole creature presently follows rough handling of tha tentacles, while contact of the tentacles with nutritiye matter causes a gradual closing of them around it.
Here by the propagation of some influence among them, the parts are made to co-operate for the general good, feebly and sluggishly. In Polyzoa along with the rise of distinct nerve-centres, there is a rise of distinct nerve-fibres, conveying impulses rapidly along definite lines, instead of slowly through the substance in general. Hence comes a relatively prompt co-operation of parts to deal with sudden external actions. And as these intemuncial lines multiply, becoming at the same time well adjusted in their connexions, they make possible those varied co-ordinations which developed nervous centres direct. Analogous stages in social evolution are sufficiently manifest. Over a territory covered by groups devoid of political organization, news of an inroad spreads from person to person, taking long to diffuse over the whole area; and the inability of the scattered mass to co-operate is involved as much by the absence of intemuncial agencies as by the absence of regulating centres. But along with such slight political coordination as combination for defence produces, there arise appliances for influencing the actions of distant allies. Even the Puegians light fires to communicate intelligence.
THX RJIGULATINa 8TSTE1C. 555 The Tasmanians^ too^ made use of signal fires; as do also the Tannese; and this method of producing a vague co-ordination among the parts in certain emergencies^ is found among other uncivilized races. As we advance^ and as more definite combinations of more varied kinds* have to be effected for offence and defence^ messengers are employed. Among the Fijians^ for instance^ men are sent with news and commands^ and use certain mnemonic aids. The New Zealanders '^occasionally conveyed information to distant tribes during war by marks on gourds." In such comparatively advanced states as those of Ancient America^ this method of sending news was greatly developed. The Mexicans had couriers who at full speed ran six -mile stages^ and so carried intelligence^ it is said, even 800 miles in a day; and the Peruvians^ besides their fire and smoke signals in time of rebellion^ had runners of the same kind. Thus what is in its early stage a slow propagation of impulses from unit to unit throughout a society^ becomes^ as we advance^ a more rapid propagation along settled lines: so making quick and definitely-adjusted combinations possible.
Moreover^ we must note that this part of the regulating system, like its other parts, is initiated by the necessities of co-operation against other societies. As in later times among Highland clans^ the fast runner^ bearing the fiery cross, carried a command to arm; so^ in early English times^ the messages were primarily those between rulers and their agents^ and habitually concerned military affairs. Save in these cases (and even state-messengers could not move swiftly along the bad roads of early days) the propagation of intelligence through the body politic was very slow. The slowness continued down to comparatively late periods. The death of Queen Elizabeth was not known in some parts of Devon until after the Court had gone out of mourning; and the news of the appointment of Cromwell as Protector took nineteen days to reach Bridgwater. Nor have we to remark only the tardy spread of the influences required for 556 THs iHBucnovfl or sociologt.
oo-operation of parts. The smallness and uniformity of these influences haye also to be noted in contrast with their subsequent greatness and multiformity. Instead of the courier bearing a solitary despatch^ military or political, from one ruling agent to another, at irregular intervals in few places; there come eyentnally, through despatches of multitudinous letters daily and several times a-day, in all directions through every class, swift transits of impulses, no less voluminous than varied^ all instrumental to co-operation. Two other intemuncial agencies of more developed kinds are afterwards added. Out of the letter, when it had become comparatively frequent among the educated classes, there came the news-letter: at first a partially-printed sheet issued on the occurrence of an important event, and having an unprinted space left for a written letter. From this^ dropping its blank part, and passing from the occasional into the periodic, came the newspaper.
And the newspaper has grown in size, in multitndinousness, in variety, in frequency, until the feeble and slow waves of intelligence at long and irregular intervals, have become the powerful, regular, rapid waves by which^ twice and thrice daily^ millions of people receive throughout the kingdom stimulations and checks of all kinds, furthering quick and balanced adjustments of conduct. Finally there arises a far swifter propagation of stimuli serving to co-ordinate social actions, political, military, commercial, etc. Beginning with the semaphore-telegraph, which, reminding us in general principle of the signal-fires of savages, differed by its ability to convey from station to station not single vague ideas only, but numerous, complex, and distinct ideas, we end with the electric-telegraph, immeasurably more rapid, through which go quite definite messages, infinite in variety and of every degree of complexity. And in place of a few such semaphore-telegraphs, transmitting^ chiefly for governmental purposes, impulses in a few directions, there has come a multiplicity of lines of instant com- THE fiSGUIATING SYSTEM. 657 inanication in all directions^ subserving aU purposes. Moreover^ by the agency of tHese latest intemuncial stmctaresj the social organism, thongh discrete, has acquired a promptness of co-ordination equal to, and indeed exceeding, the promptness of co-ordination in concrete organisms. It was before pointed out (§ 221) that social units, though forming a discontinuooB aggregate, achieve by language a traMmission of impulses which, in individual aggregates, is achieved by nerves. But now, utilizing the molecular continuity of wires, the impulses are conveyed throughout the body politic much faster than they would be were it a concrete living whole. Including times occupied by taking messages to and from the offices in each place, any citizen in Edinburgh may give motion to any citizen in London, in less than onefonrth the time a nervous discharge would take to pass from one to the other, were they joined by living tissue. Nor should we omit the fact that parallelism in the requirements has caused something like parallelism in the arrangements of the intemuncial lines. From great social centres diverge many large clusters of wires, from which, as they get further away, diverge at intervals minor clusters, and these presently give off re-diverging clusters; just as main bundles of nerves on their way towards the periphery, from time to time emit lateral bundles, and these again others. Moreover, the distribution presents the analogy that near chief centres these great clusters of intemuncial lines go bide by side with the main channels of conmiunication — railways and roads-'but frequently part from these as they ramify; in the same way that in the central parts of a vertebrate animal, nerve-trunks habitually accompany arteries, while towards the periphery the proximity of nerves and arteries is not maintained: the only constant association being also similar in the two cases; for the one telegraph wire which accompanies the railway system throughout every ramification, is the wire which checks and excites its traffic, as the one nerve which everywhere accompanies aa 558 THE IHDUCmOBS <» aocroLOGT.
artery is tlie vaso-motor nerre regulating the circalation in it. Once more, it is a noteworthy &ct that in both cases insolation characterizes the intemnncial lines. Utterly onlike as are the molecular wayes conveyed, it is needfnl in both cases that they should be limited to the channels pro-Tided. Though in the aerial telegraph-wires insulation is otherwise effected, in under-ground wires it is effected in a way analogous to that seen in nerve-fibres. Many wires united in a bundle are separated from one another by sheaths of non-conducting substance; as the nerve-fibres that run side by side in the same trunk, are separated from one another by their respective medullary sheaths.
The general result, then, is that in societies, as in living bodies, the increasing mutual dependence of parts, implying an increasingly-efficient regulating system, therefore implies not only developed regulating centres, but also means by which the influences of such centres may be propagated. And we see that as, under one of its aspects, organic evolution shows us more and more efficient intemuncial appliances subserving regulation, so, too, does social evolution.
§ 254. One more remarkable and important parallelism has to be set forth. In both kinds of organisms the regulating system, during evolution, divides into two systems, to which is finally added a third partially-independent system; and the differentiations of these systems have common causes in the two cases.
The general law of organization, abundantly illustrated in foregoing chapters, is that distinct duties entail distinct structures; that from the strongest functional contrasts come the greatest structural differences; and that within each of the leading systems of organs first divided from one another in conformity with this principle, secondary divisions arise in conformity with the same principle. The implication is, then, that if in an organism, individual or social, the function of regulation falls into two divisions THE fiXOULATINO ST8TEM. 559 tkat are widely unlike, the regulating apparatus will differentiate into correspondingly-anlike parts carrying on their unlike functions in great measure independently. This we shall find that it does.
The fundamental division in a developed animal, we have seen to be that between the outer system of organs which deal with the environment and the inner system of organs which carry on sustentation. For efficient mutual aid it is requisite not only that the actions of these inner and outer systems, considered as wholes, shall be co-ordinated; but also that each system shall have the actions of its several parts co-ordinated with one another. Prey can be caught or enemies escaped, only if the bones and muscles of each limb work together properly — only if all the.
limbs effectually co-operate — only if they jointly adjust their motions to the tactual, visual, and auditory impressions; and to combine these many actions of the various sensory and motor agents, there must be a nervous system that is large and complex in proportion as the actions combined are powerful, multiplied, and involved. Like in principle, though much less elaborate, is the combination required among the actions of the sustaining structures. If the masticated food is not swallowed when thrust to the entrance of the gullet, digestion cannot begin; if when food is in the stomach contractions but no secretions take place, or if the pouring out of gastric juices is not accompanied by due rhythmical movements, digestion is arrested; if the great appended glands send into the intestines not enough of their respective products, or send them at wrong times, or in wrong proportions, digestion is left imperfect; and so with the many minor simultaneous and successive processes which go to make up the general function. Hence there must be some nervous structure which, by its internuncial excitations and inhibitions, shall maintain the coordination. Now observe how widely unlike are the two kinds of co-ordination to be secured. The external 560 TBB INDUCTIONS Of SOCIOliOGT.
actions must be qnick in their changes. Swift motions, sndden variations of direction^ instant stoppages, are needful. Musoalar contractions mast be exactly adjusted to preserve the balance^ achieve the leap^ evade the swoop. Moreover^ involved combinations are implied; for the forces to be simultaneously dealt with are many and various. Again^ the involved combinations^ changing from moment to moment^ rarely recur; because the circumstances are rarely twice alike. And once more, not the needs of the moment only have to be met, but also the needs of a future more or less distant. Nothing of the kind holds with the internal co-ordinations. The same series of processes has to be gone through after every meal — ^varying somewhat with the quantity of food, with its quality, and with the degree to which it has been masticated. No quick, special, and exact adaptations are required; but only a general proportion and tolerable order among actions which are not precise in their beginnings, amounts, or endings.
Hence for the sustaining organs there arises a regulating apparatus of a strongly contrasted character, which eventually becomes substantially separate. The sympathetic system of nerves, or " nervous system of organic life," as it is otherwise called, whether or not originally derived from the cerebro-spinal system, is, in developed vertebrates, practically independent. Though perpetually influenced by the higher system which, working the muscular structures, causes the chief expenditure, and though in its turn influencing this higher system, the two carry on their functions apart: tbey affect one another chiefly by general demands and general checks. Only over the heart and lungs, which are indispensable co-operators with both the sustaining organs and the expending organs, do we find that the superior and inferior nervous systems exercise a divided control. The heart, excited by the cerebro-spinal system in proportion to the supply of blood required for external action, is also excited by the sympathetic when a meal THS SSaUTATIKQ 8T8TEM. 561 lias made a supply of blood needful for digestion; and tbe longs which (because their expansion has to be efEected partly by thoracic muscles belonging to the outer system of organs) largely depend for their movements on cerebrospinal nerves, are nevertheless also excited by the sympathetic when the alimentary org^s are at work. And here, as showing the tendency there is for all these comparativelyconstant vital processes to fall under a nervous control unlike that which directs the ever-varying outer processes, it may be remarked that such influences as the cerebro-spinal system exerts upon the heart and lungs, differ greatly from its higher directive actions — are mainly reflex and uncon-i scions. Volition &ils to modify the heart's pulsations; and though an act of will may temporarily increase or decrease respiration, yet the average respiratory movements are not thus changeable, but during waking and sleeping are automatically determined. To which facts let me add thai the broad contrast here illustrated in the highest or vertebrate type, is also illustrated in the higher members of the annulose type. Insects, too, have visceral nervous systems substantially distinguished from the nervous systems which co-ordinate outer actions. And thus we are shown that separation of the two functionally-contrasted regulating systems in animals, is a concomitant of greater evolution.
A parallel contrast of duties produces a parallel differentiation of structures during the evolution of social organisms. Single in low societies as in low animals, the regulating system in high societies as in high animals becomes divided into two systems, which, though they perpetually affect one another, carry on their respective controls with substantial independence. Observe the like causes for these like effects. Success in conflicts with other societies implies quickness, combination, and special adjustment to ever-varying circumstances. Information of an enemy's movements must be swiftly conveyed; forces must be rapidly drafted to particular spots; supplies fit in kinds and quanti- 562 THE INDUCTIONS OF 8OCIOL0CFT.
ties miifit be provided; military manoenyres most be barmonized; and to these ends there most be a centralised agency that is instantly obeyed. Quite otherwise is it with the stmctares carrying on snstentation. Though the actions of these have to be somewhat yaried npon occasion^ especially to meet war-demands^ yet their general action is comparatiyely xmif orm. The seyeral kinds of food raised haye to meet a consumption that changes within moderate limits only; for clothing the demands are tolerably constant, and alter in their proportions not suddenly but slowly; and so with commodities of less necessary kinds: rapidity, speciality, and exactness, do not characterize the required co-ordination. Hence a place for another kind of regulating system. Such a system we shall find eyolyes as the sustaining system itself eyolyes. Let ns note its progress. In early stages the occupations are often such as to prevent division between the control of defensive actions and the control of sustaining actions, because the two are closely allied. Among the Mandans the families joined in hunting and equally divided the spoil; showing us that the war with beasts carried on for joint benefit was so nearly allied to the war with men carried on for joint benefit, that they both remained public affairs. Similarly among the Gomanches, the guarding of a tribe's cattle is carried on in the same manner as military guarding might be; and because the community of individual interests in this protection of the cattle from enemies, is like the community of interests in personal protection, unify in the two kinds of government continues. Moreover in simple tribes that are under any kind of headship, what authority exists is unlimited in range, and includes industrial actions as well as others. If there are merely wives for slaves, or if there is a slave-class, the dominant individuals who carry on outer attack and defence, also direct in person what labour is performed; and where a chief having considerable power haa arisen, he not only leads in war but orders the daily aotivi- THB BBOULATINa StBTStt. 568 ties during peace. The Gonds^ the Bhils^ the Nagas^ the Mishmis^ the E^almuoks^ and many other simple tribes^ show us this identity of the political and industrial goyemments. A partial adyance^ leading to some distinction^ does not separate the two in a definite way* Thus among the Kukis the rajiJi claims and regulates work^ superintends village removalSy and apportions the land each family has to clear on a new site; among the Santals the head man partially controls the people's labour; and among the Ehonds he acts as chief merchant. In Polynesia we find like facts. The New Zealand chiefs superintend agricultural and building operations; the Sandwich Islanders have a market^ in which ''the price is regulated by the chief;'' trade in Tonga also ''is evidently under their [the chiefs'] supervision; " and the Kadagan chiefs "settle the price of rice." So again in Celebes^ the days for working in the plantations are decided by the political agency^ and the people go at beat of gong; so again in East Africa^ the times of sowing and harvest depend on the chiefs willj and among the Inland Negroes the "market is arranged accordiug to the direc-^ tions of the chiefs; " so again in some parts of Ancient America^ as San Salvador^ where the cazique directed the plantings; and so again in some parts of America at the present time. Those who trade with the Mundrucus " have to distribute their wares amongst the minor chiefs^" and then wait some months " for repayment in produce; " and the Patagonians could not sell any of their arms or clothing to Wilkes's party without asking the chiefs permission. In other societies^ and especially in those which are considerably developed, we find this union of political and industrial rule becoming modified: the agency, otherwise the same, is doubled. Thus "among the Sakarran Dyaks there is a trading chief in addition to the ordinary chief; " among the Dahomans there is a commercial chief in Whydah; and there are industrial chiefs in Fiji, where, in other respects, social organization is considerably advanced. At a later 564 THE INDUCTIONS OV SOCIOLOOT.
stage the commercial cliief passes into the government officer exercising stringent supervision. In Ancient Groatemala a state-functionary fixed the prices in the markets; and in Mexico^ agents of the state saw that lands did not remain xmciiltivated. Facts of this kind introduce ns to ihe stages passed through by European societies. Up to the 10th century each domain in France had its bond, or only partially -free^ workmen and artizans, directed by the seigneur and paid by him in meals and goods; between the 11th and 14th centuries the feudal superiors, ecclesiastical or lay, regulated production and distribution to sucli extent that industrial and commercial licences had to be par« chased from them; in the subsequent monarchical stage, it was a legal maxim that ^' the right to labour is a royal right which the prince may sell and subjects can buy''; and onwards to the time of the Bevolution, the country swarmed with officials who.authorized occupations, dictated processes, examined products: since which times state-control, though remaining considerable, has greatly diminished, and the adjustments of industry to its needs have been otherwise effected. Still better does our own history show ns this progressive difEerentiation. In the Old English period the heads of guilds were identical with the local political heads— ealdormen, wick-, port-, or burgh-reeves; and the guild was itself in part a political body. Purchases and bargains had to be made in presence of officials; agricultural and manufacturing processes were dictated by law. Dictations of kindred kind, though decreasing, continued to late times.
Down to the 16th century there were metropolitan and local councils, politically authorized, which determined prices, fixed wages, etc. But during subsequent generations, restrictions and bounties disappeared; usury laws were abolished; liberty of commercial combination increased.